Monthly Archives: October 2016

November 1916: Royalty and World War I

by Susan Flantzer

  • November 18, 1916: End of the Battle of the Somme
  • November 21, 1916: Death of Franz Joseph I, Emperor of Austria, King of Hungary
  • Timeline: November 1, 1916 – November 30, 1916
  • A Note About German Titles
  • November 1916 – Royals/Nobles/Peers/Sons of Peers Who Died In Action

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November 18, 1916: End of the Battle of the Somme

“Somme. The whole history of the world cannot contain a more ghastly word.” These were the words of Friedrich Steinbrecher, a 24-year-old German officer and theology student who fought in the Battle of the Somme and survived, but was killed in action in 1917 in Champagne, France.

The Battle of the Somme was a 141-day battle, more accurately called the Somme Offensive, that lasted from July 1, 1916 until November 18, 1916. Fought in northern France near the Somme River, the battle pitted the British and French forces against the German forces. By November 18, 1916, when the battle ended, British and French forces had penetrated only 6 miles (9.7 km) into German-occupied territory and more than 1,300,000 soldiers from all countries involved were dead or wounded, making the Battle of the Somme one of the bloodiest battles in history. The British and the French won a Pyrrhic victory, a victory that inflicts such a devastating toll on the victor that it is equivalent to a defeat. The phrase Pyrrhic victory is named after King Pyrrhus of Epirus, whose army suffered irreplaceable casualties in defeating the Romans at Heraclea in 280 BC and Asculum in 279 BC during the Pyrrhic War.

To learn more about the Battle of the Somme, see:

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November 21, 1916: Death of Franz Joseph I, Emperor of Austria, King of Hungary

Franz Joseph I, Emperor of Austria, King of Hungary; Photo Credit – Wikipedia

Franz Joseph I, Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary died on November 21, 1916, in the middle of World War I, at the age of 86 at Schönbrunn Palace in Vienna, Austria. He is the third longest reigning European monarch (nearly 68 years) after King Louis XIV of France (72 years) and Johann II, Prince of Liechtenstein (70 years). During World War I, the Austro-Hungarian Empire was part of the Central Powers or Quadruple Powers along with the German Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria.

Leaders of the Central Powers (left to right): Wilhelm II, German Emperor; Franz Joseph, Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary; Mehmed V, Sultan of the Ottoman Empire; and Ferdinand I, Tsar of Bulgaria; Photo Credit – Wikipedia

Born on August 18, 1830 at Schönbrunn Palace in Vienna, Austria, 18-year-old Franz Joseph succeeded to the throne on December 2, 1848 upon the abdication of his uncle Ferdinand who suffered from epilepsy, hydrocephalus, and neurological problems.

Franz Joseph married Elisabeth of Bavaria (known as Sisi) on April 24, 1854 at the Augustinerkirche, the parish church of the imperial court of the Habsburgs, a short walk from Hofburg Palace in Vienna. The ceremony was conducted by Cardinal Joseph Othmar Rauscher, Archbishop of Vienna with 1,000 guests in attendance including 70 bishops.

Emperor Franz Joseph in 1853; Credit – Wikipedia

Empress Elisabeth in 1855; Credit – Wikipedia

The couple had four children:

Franz Joseph’s family endured several tragic, violent deaths:

 

In early November of 1916, Franz Joseph was suffering from a chronic lung inflammation which then developed into pneumonia. Despite a persistent high fever, the 86-year-old emperor continued his daily routine with his immense workload literally until the day he died. In the afternoon of November 21, 1916, Franz Joseph’s condition rapidly deteriorated, but he remained at his desk working until 7 PM when he allowed his valet to help him to bed. Franz Joseph died shortly after 9 PM. His great nephew succeeded him as Emperor Karl I of Austria, but only reigned for two years as the monarchy was abolished at the end of World War I.

Coffin of Franz Joseph lying in state at the Hofburg Palace chapel; Photo Credit – Wikipedia

Franz Joseph’s body lay in state for three days at Hofburg Palace. The funeral took place on November 30, 1916. With all the bells of Vienna’s churches ringing and thousands of mourners lining the streets of Vienna, the coffin of the late Emperor was taken from Hofburg Palace to St. Stephen’s Cathedral where a short service was attended by Emperor Karl I, his wife Empress Zita (of Bourbon-Parma) and the heir to the throne four-year-old Crown Prince Otto.

After the service, the Emperor, the Empress, and the Crown Prince were joined by King Ludwig III of Bavaria, King Friedrich August of Saxony, Tsar Ferdinand I of Bulgaria and Crown Prince Wilhelm of Germany representing his father Wilhelm II, German Emperor to follow the funeral cortege on foot as the remains of Franz Joseph were transported to the Kaisergruft (Imperial Crypt) in the Capuchin Church, the traditional burial place of the Habsburgs, where Franz Joseph was buried between his wife and his son. Two days later, on the 68th anniversary of Franz Joseph’s accession to the throne, a final requiem mass was celebrated in the Hofburg Palace chapel attended by the Imperial Family and court dignitaries.
Unofficial Royalty: A Visit to the Kaisergruft (Imperial Crypt) in Vienna
You Tube: Funeral Procession of Emperor Franz Joseph

Funeral Procession for Emperor Franz Joseph, in front: Empress Zita and Emperor Karl with their oldest son Crown Prince Otto; Photo Credit – Wikipedia

Tomb of Emperor Franz Ferdinand with the tomb of Empress Elisabeth on the left and the tomb of Crown Prince Rudolf on the right; Photo Credit – Susan Flantzer, August 2012

See Unofficial Royalty: Franz Joseph I, Emperor of Austria, King of Hungary for a more complete biography.

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Timeline: November 1, 1916 – November 30, 1916

  • July 1 – November 18 – Battle of the Somme in Somme, Picardy, France
  • October – November – First Battle of the Crna Bend, near the Crna River in Macedonia and Serbia, a phase of the Monastir Offensive
  • October 1 – November 5 – Battle of Le Transloy in Le Transloy, France, last stage of the Battle of the Somme
  • October 1 – November 11 – Battle of Ancre Heights in Ancre, France, last stage of the Battle of the Somme
  • November 1–4 – Ninth Battle of the Isonzo in the Soča River valley in present-day Slovenia
  • November 13–18 – Battle of the Ancre (closing phase of the Battle of the Somme) near the Ancre River in Picardy, France
  • November 18 – The Battle of the Somme ends with enormous casualties and an English-French advantage
  • November 21 – HMHS Britannic sinks after hitting a German mine
  • November 21 – Franz Joseph I, Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary, dies and is succeeded by Karl I (see above)
  • November 25 – December 3 – Battle of Bucharest, a phase of the conquest of Romania, in Romania, the capital of Romania
  • November 28 – Prunaru Charge, a phase of the Battle of Bucharest, Romanian cavalry desperately charge into enemy lines

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A Note About German Titles

Many German royals and nobles died in World War I. The German Empire consisted of 27 constituent states, most of them ruled by royal families. Scroll down to German Empire here to see what constituent states made up the German Empire.  The constituent states retained their own governments, but had limited sovereignty. Some had their own armies, but the military forces of the smaller ones were put under Prussian control. In wartime, armies of all the constituent states would be controlled by the Prussian Army and the combined forces were known as the Imperial German Army. German titles may be used in Royals Who Died In Action below. Refer to Unofficial Royalty: Glossary of German Noble and Royal Titles.

24 British peers were also killed in World War I and they will be included in the list of those who died in action. In addition, more than 100 sons of peers also lost their lives, and those that can be verified will also be included.

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November 1916 – Royals/Nobles/Peers/Sons of Peers Who Died In Action

The list is in chronological order and does contain some who would be considered noble instead of royal. The links in the last bullet for each person is that person’s genealogical information from Leo’s Genealogics Website or to The Peerage website. If a person has a Wikipedia page, their name will be linked to that page.

Captain Auberon Thomas Herbert, 9th Baron Lucas and 5th Baron Dingwall

Prince Heinrich of Bavaria

Lieutenant Commander The Honorable Philip Sidney Campbell

Lieutenant The Honorable Vere Sidney Tudor Harmsworth

Lieutenant The Honorable Frederic Sydney Trench

Prince Heinrich XLI Reuss

Anne, Princess Royal, Princess of Orange

by Susan Flantzer © Unofficial Royalty 2016

Anne, Princess Royal, Princess of Orange; Credit – Wikipedia

Anne, Princess Royal was the eldest daughter and the second child of King George II of Great Britain and Caroline of Ansbach. She was born a Princess of Hanover on November 2, 1709, at Schloss Herrenhausen in Hanover, now in the German state of Lower Saxony. At the time of her birth, her great-grandmother Sophia, Electress of Hanover was the heiress presumptive to Queen Anne of Great Britain in accordance with the Act of Settlement 1701, but Sophia died two months before Queen Anne died. Christened shortly after her birth at Schloss Herrenhausen, Anne was named after Queen Anne of Great Britain, her grandfather’s second cousin.

Anne had seven siblings:

Anne, on the left, with two of her sisters, Amelia and Caroline; Credit – Wikipedia

Anne playing the harpsichord, Caroline playing the lute, Frederick playing the cello, and Amelia reading; Credit – Wikipedia

When Anne was five years old in 1714, her grandfather succeeded Queen Anne as King George I of Great Britain, and she was then styled Her Royal Highness Princess Anne of Great Britain. Anne accompanied her parents and her two sisters, Amelia and Caroline, to England. Her elder brother, seven-year-old Frederick, now second in the line of succession to the British throne, was left in Hanover in the care of his great-uncle Ernst August, Prince-Bishop of Osnabrück. Frederick did not see his family again for 14 years. Certainly, this long separation during childhood was a factor in the negative relationship Frederick had with his parents as an adult.

Anne’s father, George, now Prince of Wales, had a very poor relationship with his father. The first big rift occurred because of a disagreement over the choice of godparents for the Prince and Princess of Wales’ short-lived son George William, born in 1717. The disagreement grew out of proportion, and George was placed under arrest. The result was that George and Caroline were exiled from St. James’ Palace. They moved into Leicester House in Leicester Square, London which became their chief residence for the rest of King George I’s reign. However, their children were kept at St. James’ Palace in the custody of their grandfather. Anne and her sister missed their parents tremendously. She lamented that her grandfather, the King, did not even visit them, saying, “He does not love us enough for that.” Little Prince George William died when he was three months old. His parents blamed King George I for his death which only worsened the relationship between father and son. In 1720, Anne became ill with smallpox, and for a few days, it was feared she might die. King George I knew that the death of a second grandchild while under his care would be on his conscience, and soon he reconciled with his son and daughter-in-law.

As the eldest daughter of the Prince and Princess of Wales, Anne felt a great deal of self-importance. She told her mother that she wished she had no brothers so that she could become Queen. When her mother disciplined her for the remark, Anne said, “I would die tomorrow to be Queen today.” Anne insisted that a lady-in-waiting stand beside her bed and read aloud until she fell asleep. Once, Anne took so long to fall asleep that the lady-in-waiting fell asleep in the middle of a chapter. The Princess of Wales decided to teach Anne a lesson. The next night she called Anne to her bedside and asked Anne to read aloud. When Anne tried to sit down, her mother told her to continue standing because she would be able to hear better. The Princess of Wales would not let Anne stop reading despite her complaining that she was tired and her throat was dry. Eventually, Anne began to cry and her mother decided that she had learned her lesson and scolded her for her treatment of the lady-in-waiting.

Anne was an excellent student. By the time she was five years old, she spoke, read, and wrote German and French, spoke English, and was learning history and geography. As she grew older, she became skilled at painting, embroidery, singing, dancing, and playing the harpsichord. The famous composer Georg Friedrich Handel was appointed her music master. Handel did not like teaching, but he made an exception for Anne, whom he called “Anne, flower of princesses.”

On June 11, 1727, Anne’s grandfather King George I, and Anne’s father succeeded him as King George II.  On August 30, 1727, King George II created his eldest daughter Princess Royal, a title that had not been used since King Charles I first created it for his daughter Mary in 1642.

Anne, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange; Credit – Wikipedia

A proposed marriage with King Louis XV of France fell through because the French insisted that Anne convert to Roman Catholicism and Anne’s family refused. Bored with life at her father’s court, Anne did not want to be a spinster and was anxious to marry. Anne had been disfigured by smallpox and was not considered attractive. Among the few Protestant possibilities, was Willem IV, Prince of Orange. Willem had a spinal deformity, which affected his appearance, but Anne was so anxious to marry that said she would marry him even “if he were a baboon.” Anne and Willem were betrothed in 1733. On March 25, 1734, Anne and Willem married at the Chapel Royal in St. James’s Palace in London.

After enduring two miscarriages and two stillbirths, Anne and Willem had three children, but only two survived to adulthood. Through their son, they are ancestors of the Dutch Royal Family.

Willem IV, Prince of Orange; Anne, Princess of Orange and their two children Carolina and Willem; Credit – Wikipedia

When Anne and Willem arrived in the Netherlands, they took up residence at the Stadhouderlijk Hof in Leeuwarden, the provincial capital and seat of the States of Friesland (now in the Netherlands). Anne’s husband Willem was the posthumous son of Johan Willem Friso, Prince of Orange, who died from drowning at age 23, and his wife Maria Louise of Hesse-Kassel.

Upon his birth, Willem succeeded his father as Stadtholder of Friesland and as Stadtholder of Groningen. In 1722, he was elected Stadtholder of Guelders. In April 1747, the French army entered Flanders, threatening the Netherlands, which was weakened by internal division. The Dutch decided their country needed a single strong executive and turned to the House of Orange. Willem and his family moved from Leeuwarden to The Hague. On May 4, 1747, the States-General of the Netherlands named Willem General Stadtholder of all seven of the United Provinces of the Netherlands and made the position hereditary for the first time.

Willem IV, Prince of Orange; Credit – Wikipedia

Willem IV died at age 40 from a stroke on October 22, 1751, at Huis ten Bosch in The Hague and was buried in the crypt of the House of Orange in the Nieuwe Kerk (New Church) in Delft. He was succeeded by his three-year-old son Willem V with Anne serving as Regent.

As Regent, Anne was given all the powers normally given a hereditary Stadtholder of the Netherlands, except the military duties of the office, which were entrusted to Ludwig Ernst of Brunswick-Lüneburg.  She was hard-working, but arrogant and imperious, which made her unpopular. The 1750s were years of increasing tension and commercial rivalry between the Netherlands and Great Britain, which placed her in a difficult position.

Anne, Princess of Orange; Credit – Wikipedia

Anne acted as Regent until her death from dropsy on January 12, 1759, at age 49 in The Hague, the Netherlands. As her son was underage, his paternal grandmother Marie Louise of Hesse-Kassel became Regent. When Marie Louise died in 1765, Anne’s daughter Carolina, served as Regent until Willem V turned 18 in 1766. Anne was buried with her husband in the crypt of the House of Orange in the Nieuwe Kerk (New Church) in Delft, the Netherlands.

The access to the royal crypt in the foreground; Credit – By Sander van der Wel from Netherlands – Royal grave tomb and the grave of Willem van Oranje, CC BY-SA 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=28146859

This article is the intellectual property of Unofficial Royalty and is NOT TO BE COPIED, EDITED, OR POSTED IN ANY FORM ON ANOTHER WEBSITE under any circumstances. It is permissible to use a link that directs to Unofficial Royalty.

Works Cited
“Anne, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange.” Wikipedia. N.p.: Wikimedia Foundation, 30 Aug. 2016. Web. 10 Sept. 2016.
“John William Friso, Prince of Orange.” Wikipedia. N.p.: Wikimedia Foundation, 15 July 2016. Web. 10 Sept. 2016.
Susan. “King George II of Great Britain.” British Royals. Unofficial Royalty, 21 Dec. 2015. Web. 10 Sept. 2016.
Van Der Kiste, John. The Georgian Princesses. Phoenix Mill: Sutton Publishing, 2000. Print.
“William IV, Prince of Orange.” Wikipedia. N.p.: Wikimedia Foundation, 23 July 2016. Web. 10 Sept. 2016.
Williamson, David. Brewer’s British Royalty. London: Cassell, 1996. Print.

Marie Louise of Austria, Empress of the French

by Scott Mehl and Susan Flantzer   © Unofficial Royalty 2016

Marie Louise of Austria, Empress of the French; Credit – Wikipedia

Archduchess Maria Ludovica Leopoldina Franziska Therese Josepha of Austria was the second wife of Napoleon I, Emperor of the French and later Duchess of Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla in her own right. She was born on December 12, 1791, at the Hofburg Palace in Vienna, Austria, the eldest child of Franz II, Holy Roman Emperor (later Emperor Franz I of Austria), and Maria Teresa of Naples and Sicily. She had eleven siblings:

Maria Ludovica (far right) with her parents and siblings, circa 1805. source: Wikipedia

Maria Ludovica spent her childhood living at Hofburg Palace and Schönbrunn Palace and was her father’s favorite daughter. She did not, however, have a close relationship with her mother, who showed little affection for her children. Maria Ludovica received a traditional education at court, focusing on religion and languages, becoming fluent in at least six languages. From a young age, she developed a dislike for all things French. This was greatly influenced by her grandmother a sister of the French Queen Marie Antoinette who was killed during the French Revolution when Maria Ludovica was just a toddler. She lost her mother in 1807 but became close to her stepmother, Maria Ludovika of Austria-Este, who was very close in age.

Marriage of Napoleon and Maria Ludovica, painted by Georges Rouget, 1810. source: Wikipedia

By the end of 1809, the French Emperor Napoleon was searching for a new bride who could bear him an heir and set his sights on the leading royal families of Europe. When his focus turned toward a Russian Grand Duchess, the Austrian Prime Minister, Count Metternich, encouraged Emperor Franz I of Austria to suggest his daughter Maria Ludovica. Ending his quest for a Russian bride, Napoleon began negotiations to marry Maria Ludovica. A marriage contract was signed in February 1810, and the couple was married by proxy on March 11, 1810, at the Augustinian Church in Vienna. The young Maria Ludovica became Empress of the French and Queen of Italy, taking on the French version of her name, Marie Louise.

After leaving Vienna, she arrived in France and met her husband for the first time on March 27, 1810, in Compiègne, France. A civil wedding was held on April 1, 1810, in the Grand Hall of the Château of Saint-Cloud, and the following day, the couple made their grand entrance into Paris, arriving at the Tuileries Palace. They then went to the Louvre Palace, where their religious ceremony was held in the Salon Carré.

Quickly adapting to her role as Empress of the French, Marie Louise found the French court was not welcoming. Too recent memories of Marie Antoinette, Marie Louise’s great aunt and the last Austrian consort, had many wary of their new Empress. Marie Louise was also timid and reserved and did not speak much publicly, which did not reassure many people that she was different from her great-aunt. Emperor Napoleon went out of his way to make her as comfortable as possible and appears to have developed quite a love for his second wife. Soon, the couple had their only child:

Empress Marie Louise with her son by François Gérard, 1813 source: Wikipedia

On a trip to Austria in 1812, just before France invaded Russia, Marie Louise met Count Adam Albert von Neipperg for the first time. Little did she know that their paths would cross again in a few years, in a much different manner. After disastrous results against Russia, Napoleon soon saw the collapse of his empire. Prussia and the United Kingdom soon joined forces with Russia, declaring war on France. Marie Louise tried to get her father to join forces with France, but Austria soon joined the coalition against Napoleon.

On March 29, 1814, with her husband leading his troops attempting to stave off an invasion, Marie Louise and her court left Paris and moved to Blois. Days later, the French Senate deposed Emperor Napoleon and he formally abdicated on April 11, 1814, at the Château of Fontainebleau. Under the terms of the Treaty of Fontainebleau, Marie Louise retained her rank and style and was granted the duchies of Parma, Placentia, and Guastalla, with her son as her heir.

Dissuaded from joining her husband, Marie Louise soon returned to Vienna, taking up residence at Schönbrunn Palace. Several months later, she planned a visit to the spas in Aix-les-Bains. To keep her from trying to join her husband in Elba, her father sent Count von Neipperg to accompany her. The two soon fell in love, and von Neipperg became her Chamberlain and represented her at the Congress of Vienna. The news of this romance caused a scandal in France and Austria.

Count Adam Albert von Neipperg. source: Wikipedia

Following Napoleon’s escape and return to power in 1815, Marie Louise remained in Austria, and her husband to agree to an amicable separation.  After Napoleon’s final defeat at the Battle of Waterloo and his exile to Saint Helena in October 1815, Marie Louise had no further contact with her husband. Meanwhile, the Congress of Vienna modified the decisions of the Treaty of Fontainebleau. Maria Louise remained Duchess of Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla, but only for her lifetime, and she was prohibited from bringing her son to Italy. She also lost her title as Empress and was then styled as Her Majesty Archduchess of Austria, Duchess of Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla. Accompanied by Count von Neipperg, she arrived in Parma in early 1816. Despite still being legally married to Napoleon, she and von Neipperg had three children:

  • Albertine, Countess of Montenuovo (1817 – 1867), married Luigi Sanvitale, Count of Fontanellato
  • William Albert, Prince of Montenuovo (1819 – 1895), married Countess Juliana Batthyány von Németújvár, had three children
  • Mathilde, Countess of Montenuovo (1822 – circa 1823)

Following Napoleon’s death, Marie Louise and von Neipperg were married morganatically on August 8, 1821, before their third child was born. Count Adam Albert von Neipperg died on February 22, 1829, leaving Marie Louise devastated.

In 1831, Marie Louise found herself caught up in the uprisings spreading around Italy against the Austrian-appointed Prime Minister. Initially prevented from leaving Parma, she managed to escape to Piacenza. She asked her father to replace the Prime Ministe, but instead he sent Austrian forces to suppress the rebellion. The following year, Marie Louise traveled back to Vienna and was at the bedside of her son when he died of tuberculosis in July 1832.

Count Charles-René de Bombelles. source: Wikipedia

Soon, Marie Louise would marry for the third time. In the summer of 1833, the Austrian court sent Count Charles-René de Bombelles to Parma to serve as head of the court. Six months later, on February 17, 1834, Bombelles and Marie Louise were married.

Daguerreotype of Marie Louise, 1847. source: Wikipedia

As Duchess of Parma, Marie Louise supported many causes, with much of her efforts going toward improving medical care and treatment. She established a childbirth hospital and a training school for nurses, as well as a hospital for those with mental illness. She worked toward ensuring that the Duchy was as prepared for potential disease outbreaks and her efforts helped to minimize the number of deaths in a cholera outbreak that came to Parma in 1836. She also promoted the establishment of roads and bridges and was a great supporter of music and theater. Having established a new Ducal Theater in the 1820s, she made sure that tickets were made available at prices that would allow the less fortunate to attend. She established the Conservatory of Parma and supported numerous artists, including the famed composer Giuseppe Verdi. She also brought libraries, museums, and art galleries to Parma, and founded several schools and colleges.

Marie Louise’s tomb in the Imperial Crypt. source: Wikipedia

In early December 1847, Marie Louise fell ill with pleurisy and her condition quickly worsened. She died on December 17, 1847, in Parma, Duchy of Parma, now in Italy, at the age of 56, and was interred at the Capuchin Church in the Imperial Crypt in Vienna, the traditional burial site of the Austrian Habsburgs.

This article is the intellectual property of Unofficial Royalty and is NOT TO BE COPIED, EDITED, OR POSTED IN ANY FORM ON ANOTHER WEBSITE under any circumstances. It is permissible to use a link that directs to Unofficial Royalty.

France Resources at Unofficial Royalty

Prince Mikasa of Japan

by Susan Flantzer  © Unofficial Royalty 2016

Prince Mikasa of Japan; Credit – Wikipedia

Prince Mikasa of Japan, the youngest of the four sons of Emperor Taishō and Empress Teimei, was born on December 2, 1915, at the Tokyo Imperial Palace in Tokyo, Japan.  His childhood appellation was Sumi-no-miya and he was also known by his personal name Prince Takahito.

He had three older brothers:

Emperor Taishō’s four sons in 1921: Hirohito, Mikasa, Takamatsu, and Chichibu; Credit – Wikipedia

Prince Mikasa was educated at the Gakushūin (Peers’ School), established in 1847 to educate the children of Japanese nobility. After graduating in 1932, Mikasa began a military career. He entered the Imperial Japanese Army Academy and upon graduation was commissioned a sub-lieutenant. Mikasa furthered his military education by attending the Army War College.  In December 1935, Emperor Hirohito (Shōwa) granted him the title Mikasa-no-miya (Prince Mikasa) and the authorization to form a new branch of the Imperial Family.

Prince Mikasa in 1936; Credit – Wikipedia

During World War II, Prince Mikasa, having attained the rank of major, served as a staff officer at the headquarters of the China Expeditionary Army in Nanjing, China. His goal was to strengthen the legitimacy of the nationalist government in Nanking and to coordinate a peace initiative, but his efforts were unsuccessful due to Operation Ichi-Go launched by the Imperial General Headquarters.

During his time in China, Prince Mikasa became aware of plans for a Japanese bombing of Chinese cities with bubonic plague bombs. Upon his return to Japan, Mikasa wrote a report about the bubonic plague bombs and other war atrocities he had witnessed, but the report was suppressed until 1994. In 1946, Prince Mikasa spoke to the Privy Council of Japan insisting that his brother Emperor Hirohito needed to abdicate and take responsibility for the war. However, General Douglas MacArthur, who was responsible for the Allied Occupation of Japan, protected Emperor Hirohito and insisted that he should stay in power.

On October 22, 1941, Prince Mikasa married Yuriko Takagi, daughter of Japanese noble Viscount Masanari, who was known as Princess Mikasa after her marriage. The couple had three sons and two daughters. Prince Mikasa and his family lived on the grounds of the Akasaka Palace in Tokyo. All three sons predeceased their parents.

  • Yasuko Konoe, formerly Princess Yasuko (born 1944), married Tadateru Konoe, had one daughter; upon her marriage, Princess Yasuko had to relinquish her title from birth and her official membership in the Imperial Family
  • Prince Tomohito (1946 – 2012), married Nobuko Asō, had two daughters
  • Prince Katsura (1948 – 2014), unmarried
  • Masako Sen, formerly Princess Masako (born 1951), married Sōshitsu Sen, had two sons and one daughter; upon her marriage, Princess Masako had to relinquish her title from birth and her official membership in the Imperial Family
  • Prince Takamado (1954 – 2002), married Hisako Tottori, had three daughters

Princess Mikasa and her three elder children, circa 1950; Credit – Wikipedia

Princess Mikasa in 2012; Photo Credit – Wikipedia

After World War II, Prince Mikasa studied archaeology, Middle Eastern studies, and Semitic languages at the University of Tokyo. From 1954 until he died in 2016, he directed the Japanese Society for Middle East Studies. He also held visiting and guest faculty appointments in Middle Eastern studies and archaeology at universities in Japan and abroad.

Embed from Getty Images 
Prince Mikasa and Princess Mikasa wave to well-wishers gathered for the annual New Year’s greetings at the Imperial Palace in Tokyo on January 2, 2016

Prince Mikasa died of heart failure on October 27, 2016, at the age of 100, a little more than a month before his 101st birthday. At the time of his death, he was the world’s oldest royal, the longest-lived member of the Japanese Imperial Family, and the last of the five Japanese princes in the line of succession. Prince Mikasa lived during the reigns of three emperors: his father Emperor Taishō, his brother Emperor Hirohito, and his nephew Emperor Akihito.

Prince Mikasa’s funeral, called the Renso-no-Gi (Ceremony of the Funeral and Entombment), was held on November 4, 2016, at the Toshimagaoka Imperial Cemetery in Tokyo. The host of the funeral was the prince’s 93-year-old widow Princess Mikasa. Due to Princess Mikasa’s advanced age, Princess Akiko, the eldest daughter of the late Prince Tomohito, the eldest son of Prince Mikasa, stood in for her. Other members of the Imperial Family, other relatives, Prime Minister Shinzo Abe, parliamentary leaders, and foreign ambassadors to Japan attended the funeral. As is the custom, Emperor Akihito and Empress Michiko did not attend the funeral.

Prince Mikasa’s wife Yuriko, Princess Mikasa survived her husband by eight years, dying of old age, on November 15, 2024, at St. Luke’s International Hospital in Tokyo, Japan aged 101.

This article is the intellectual property of Unofficial Royalty and is NOT TO BE COPIED, EDITED, OR POSTED IN ANY FORM ON ANOTHER WEBSITE under any circumstances. It is permissible to use a link that directs to Unofficial Royalty.

Joséphine de Beauharnais, Empress of the French

by Scott Mehl  © Unofficial Royalty 2016

painting by Baron François Gérard, c1807. source: Wikipedia

Joséphine de Beauharnais, Empress of the French; Credit – Wikipedia

Joséphine de Beauharnais was the first wife of Napoleon I, Emperor of the French. She was born Marie-Josèphe Rose Tascher de La Pagerie (known as Rose), on June 23, 1763, in Les Trois-Îlets, Martinique, the eldest daughter of Joseph-Gaspard Tascher, Seigneur de la Pagerie, and Rose Claire des Vergers de Sannois.

Joséphine had two younger sisters:

  • Catherine-Désirée Tascher de La Pagerie (1764 – 1777)
  • Marie-Françoise Tascher de La Pagerie (1766 – 1791)

Joséphine’s childhood was spent on the Caribbean island of Martinique, a French possession, where her father owned a large plantation. However, after their home was destroyed by a hurricane in 1766, and combined with her father’s mismanagement of the land, the family lost much of their fortune. Young Rose did not attend school until she was ten years-old, when she was finally sent to a religious boarding school in the nearby town of Fort Royal, now Fort-de-France.

Joséphine’s aunt was the mistress of François V de Beauharnais, Viscount de Beauharnais, and had arranged a marriage between the Viscount’s son, Alexandre and Rose’s younger sister Catherine-Désirée in 1777. However, after Catherine-Désirée died in 1777, it was decided that Rose would become his bride. On December 13, 1779, she married Alexandre de Beauharnais in Noisy-le-Grand, France. Rose and Alexandre’s descendants sit on the thrones of Belgium, Denmark, Luxembourg, Norway, and Sweden.

Rose and Alexandre’s children:

The marriage was unhappy, and Alexandre wasted most of his fortune. In December 1785, the couple separated. Rose and her children took up residence at the Pentemont Abbey in Paris. In March 1794, her estranged husband was arrested during the Reign of Terror. Despite their separation, Rose was also arrested in April 1794 and held in the Carmes prison. Alexandre was sentenced to death and executed by guillotine on July 23, 1794. Rose was released five days later, and the following year was able to reclaim her late husband’s possessions.

“The Emperor Napoleon in His Study at the Tuileries”, painted by Jacques-Louis David, 1812. source: Wikipedia

“The Emperor Napoleon in His Study at the Tuileries” painted by Jacques-Louis David, 1812. source: Wikipedia

Through those years of separation, Rose had several affairs and had become prominent in Parisian society. In 1795, she met her future husband Napoleon Bonaparte, and quickly became his mistress. They became engaged in January 1796 and married on March 9, 1796 in Paris. It was Napoleon who began calling her Joséphine, the name with which history has remembered her. Two days after the wedding, Napoleon left to fight in Italy, leaving his new wife alone. She soon began an affair with Hippolyte Charles, a lieutenant in the French forces. The affair lasted for several years until Napoleon threatened to divorce her, and she ended her relationship with Charles.

In April 1799, while her husband was away, fighting in the Egyptian Campaign, Joséphine purchased the Château de Malmaison, a few miles outside Paris. A large manor house set on nearly 150 acres, Malmaison was run down and needed significant restoration. Joséphine spent large amounts of money to create a home fit for an Emperor and Empress and devoted much of her time to developing the gardens and grounds. She had an orangery built to grow pineapple plants and a greenhouse where she grew several hundred plants that had not been grown in France before. She also developed a magnificent rose garden with over 250 different varieties of roses from around the world. In addition, she gathered a menagerie of animals that roamed in the gardens, many brought from Australia after the Baudin expedition of 1800-1803.

The crowning of Empress Joséphine, from “The Consecration of the Emperor Napoleon I and Coronation of the Empress Joséphine in the Cathedral of Notre-Dame de Paris on 2 December 1804”, painted by Jacques-Louis David. source: Wikipedia

Crowning of Empress Joséphine, from “The Consecration of Emperor Napoleon I and Coronation of  Empress Joséphine in the Cathedral of Notre-Dame de Paris on 2 December 1804” painted by Jacques-Louis David. source: Wikipedia

In November 1799, Napoleon was named First Consul of the French Republic, and the couple took up residence at the Tuileries Palace. Five years later, on May 18, 1804, Joséphine became Empress of the French when her husband was elected Emperor. They were crowned in a lavish coronation ceremony held at the Cathedral of Notre-Dame in Paris, on December 2, 1804.

While Joséphine was able to provide a lovely home for her husband, the one thing she was unable to give him was an heir. Without a son, Napoleon had named Joséphine’s grandson (and his nephew), Napoleon Charles Bonaparte, as his heir. After the young Napoleon died in 1807, the Emperor considered finding another wife who could provide him with a son. In November 1809, he told Joséphine that he planned to divorce her and find a new wife.

painting by Andrea Appiani. source: Wikipedia

Joséphine, painting by Andrea Appiani. c1808. source: Wikipedia

Joséphine agreed to a divorce, and an elaborate divorce ceremony was held on January 10, 1810. Joséphine retained her title as Empress and her rank at court and received an annual pension of 5 million francs. She received several residences, including the Château de Navarre in Normandy and the Élysée Palace in Paris. Napoleon would later ask her to return the  Élysée Palace for his use and offered her the Château de Laeken in present-day Belgium instead. Napoleon had created Joséphine Duchess of Navarre at the time of their divorce. After living at the Château de Navarre for two years, Joséphine returned to the Château de Malmaison, where would live for the rest of her life.

On May 29, 1814, Joséphine died at the age of 50 from pneumonia. She was buried in the nearby church of Saint-Pierre-Saint Paul in Rueil-Malmaison, France, in a temporary vault. In 1825, Joséphine’s remains were transferred to the tomb ordered by her two children Eugene and Hortense. Napoleon’s true love had been his first wife and his last words were, “France, army, head of the army, Joséphine.”

Tomb of Empress Joséphine at Saint-Pierre-Saint-Paul Church; Credit – Wikipedia

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Napoléon Bonaparte, Emperor of the French

by Susan Flantzer  © Unofficial Royalty 2016

Napoléon Bonaparte, Credit – Wikipedia

Napoleone di Buonaparte was born on August 15, 1769, in his family’s ancestral home Casa Buonaparte in the town of Ajaccio on the island of Corsica.  He was the fourth of the twelve children and the third of the six sons of Carlo Maria di Buonaparte and Maria Letizia Ramolino.

Napoleon’s siblings:

When he was in his twenties, he adopted the more French-sounding Napoléon Bonaparte.  At the time of his birth, Corsica was part of France, and a year later ownership was transferred to the Republic of Genoa.  Today, Corsica belongs to France.

Napoléon joined the French army and quickly advanced.  During the latter part of the French Revolution, he rose to prominence and by the age of 30 was the First Consul of France.  Napoléon was Emperor of the French from 1804 to 1815.

Joséphine de Beauharnais, Empress Joséphine; Credit – Wikipedia

Napoléon married Joséphine de Beauharnais (born Marie Josèphe Rose Tascher de La Pagerie on the island of Martinique in the Caribbean) in 1796.  Through her first marriage to  Alexandre de Beauharnais (who was guillotined during the French Revolution), Joséphine is the ancestor of the royal families of Sweden, Denmark, Belgium, Norway, and Luxembourg. Joséphine was crowned Empress of the French during Napoléon’s coronation at Notre Dame in Paris in 1804.

Napoleon crowns his wife Josephine; Credit – Wikipedia

Joséphine and Napoléon’s marriage was childless and in 1809, Napoléon decided to divorce his wife so he could marry again and his new wife produce an heir.  Desperately upset upon first hearing the news about the divorce, Joséphine ultimately agreed.  After their divorce, Napoléon insisted that Joséphine retain the title of Empress.  Napoléon married Marie Louise of Austria, the eldest child of Emperor Franz I of Austria and his second wife, Maria Theresa of Naples and Sicily.  Marie Louise gave birth to a son Napoléon François Charles Joseph Bonaparte in 1811.  Young Napoléon died of tuberculosis at the age of 21. Regarding Marie Louise, Napoléon said that he had married a womb.

Empress Marie Louise with her son: Credit – Wikipedia

In the early part of the 19th century, Napoléon’s quest for power led to wars throughout a large part of Europe.  In 1814, Paris was captured by the coalition fighting against Napoléon and his marshals decided to mutiny.  He had no choice but to abdicate.  The Treaty of Fontainebleau exiled Napoléon to the Mediterranean island of Elba, 12 miles/20 km off the coast of Tuscany, Italy.

Napoléon escaped from Elba on February 26, 1815, and arrived in France two days later.  He attempted to regain power, but he was ultimately defeated at the Battle of Waterloo on June 18, 1815, by a coalition of forces from the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Hanover, Nassau, Brunswick, and Prussia.

Napoléon was exiled to the island of Saint Helena, a British possession, in the Atlantic Ocean, 1162 miles/1,870 km from the west coast of Africa.  His health declined due to the harsh conditions and by 1821, his health was all but failing.  He died on May 5, 1821, at the age of 51 and his last words were, “France, army, head of the army, Joséphine.”  Napoléon was buried in a nameless tomb in the Valley of the Willows on St. Helena.

Death of Napoléon painted by Charles de Steuben, Credit – Wikipedia

In 1840, Louis Philippe I, King of the French, received permission from the British to return Napoléon’s remains to France.  The French called this retour des cendres (return of the ashes).   On December 15, 1840, a state funeral was held.  The funeral procession traveled from the Arc de Triomphe down the Champs-Élysées, across the Place de la Concorde to the Esplanade des Invalides, and finally to St. Jerome’s Chapel, where Napoléon’s remains stayed until the tomb designed by Louis Visconti was completed.

Napoléon’s funeral cortege along the Champs-Élysées in Paris, Credit – Wikipedia

Today, Napoléon’s remains rest in a huge tomb made of red quartzite on a green granite base under the dome of Les Invalides.  On April 2, 1861, Naploéon’s coffin was transferred from St. Jerome’s Chapel to the new tomb during a ceremony attended by  Emperor Napoléon III (Napoleon’s nephew and Joséphine’s grandson), his wife Empress Eugénie, and their only child Prince Imperial Louis Napoléon along with other related princes and government officials.

Tomb of Napoleon I, Emperor of the French at Les Invalides in Paris; Photo Credit – © Susan Flantzer

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Maria Antonia of Austria, Queen of France (Marie Antoinette)

by Scott Mehl  © Unofficial Royalty 2016

Marie Antoinette, painted by Louise Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun, c1783. source: Wikipedia

Marie Antoinette, painted by Louise Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun, c1783. source: Wikipedia

Queen Marie Antoinette of France was born Archduchess Maria Antonia Josepha Johanna of Austria, Princess of Hungary and Bohemia, on November 2, 1755, at the Hofburg Palace in Vienna, Austria. Her parents were Maria Theresa, Archduchess of Austria, and Queen of Hungary, Croatia, and Bohemia in her own right and Francis Stephen, Duke of Lorraine, Grand Duke of Tuscany, Holy Roman Emperor Maria Antonia was the fifteenth of her parents’ sixteen children.

Maria Antonia’s siblings:

Educated privately at home, Maria Antonia was not a very good student, especially compared to her siblings. However, she did become an accomplished musician, playing the flute, harp, and harpsichord. She was particularly close to her sister Maria Carolina who was just three years older.

The marriage of Marie Antoinette and Louis-Auguste, 17xx. source: Wikipedia

The marriage of Marie Antoinette and Louis-Auguste, 1770. source: Wikipedia

After establishing peace with France, Empress Maria Theresa agreed to a marriage between Maria Antonia and Louis-Auguste, Dauphin of France (the future King Louis XVI). Maria Antonia was just 13 when the engagement was announced on June 13, 1769. The couple married by proxy on April 19, 1770, at the Augustinian Church in Vienna, Austria. She took the French version of her name, becoming Marie Antoinette, Dauphine of France. The following month, she arrived in her new country and met her husband for the first time. Two days later, on May 16, 1770, she and Louis-Auguste were married in a grand ceremony held in the Chapel Royal of the Palace of Versailles. They went on to have four children:

As the new Dauphine of France, Marie Antoinette received a mixed reception.  Well-liked by the common people, particularly due to her beauty and warm personality, she was distrusted by those who still held resentment over the country’s contentious relationship with Austria.  Upon becoming Queen when King Louis XV in May 1774, she found that she had little influence on her husband, often finding her requests being blocked by two of his ministers. To appease her, King Louis XVI gave her the Petit Trianon on the grounds of the Palace of Versailles, built by King Louis XV as a home for his mistress Madame de Pompadour.  However, she died before its completion, and it became the home of her successor Madame du Barry who had a tense relationship with Marie Antoinette.  The chateau became Marie Antoinette’s retreat, where she could escape the immense pressure and judgment she faced in the French court.

Marie Antoinette also had a small hamlet built within the grounds of the Petit Trianon, known as the Queen’s Hamlet (Hameau de la reine).  The hamlet contained numerous buildings, including the Queen’s House, a mill, a dairy, and a farm.  It was here that the Queen truly found her privacy, allowing only her closest friends and family to visit her there.

Two years later, King Louis XVI purchased the Château de Saint-Cloud from Louis Phillipe I, Duke of Orleans for his wife.  Marie Antoinette felt the clear air outside the city would be better for her children.  As she had done with the Petit Trianon, Marie Antoinette transformed her new home, expanding the building and decorating it with lavish furniture commissioned specifically for the chateau.

Marie Antoinette in court dress, c1788. Painted by Louise Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun. source: Wikipedia

Marie Antoinette in court dress, c1788. Painted by Louise Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun. source: Wikipedia

As Queen, Marie Antoinette was often criticized for her spending, indulging in lavish gowns and other luxuries while the country was in a financial crisis.  This would contribute to a growing animosity from the French people and the “old guard” within the French court.  She introduced new styles in clothing and hairstyles and indulged herself in music and theater.  Over time, she began to exert more political influence, encouraging her husband to replace several of his older ministers, and prodding him to become involved in the American Revolution.  Along with gaining the support of Russia and Austria in efforts to block Great Britain’s attack, she also pushed strongly for the appointment of several ministers who helped in the American defeat of the British.

By the mid-1780s, Marie Antoinette was the subject of endless gossip and character attacks from the French people.  Rumors abounded that her second son was not fathered by her husband, that she was treating the French treasury as her own bank account, and that she held Austrian interests ahead of French interests.  In 1785, she was falsely accused in the Diamond Necklace Affair, further damaging her reputation.  Attempting to improve her image, she began to focus more publicly on the upbringing and education of her children, and spending more time in her public role and duties as Queen.  However, the tides of revolution were soon to come to the shores of France.  By 1789, the King had lost much of his absolute power to the National Assembly, and the majority of French people saw no benefit in retaining the monarchy.

Marie Antoinette facing the mob at the Tuileries Palace, June 1792. source: Wikipedia

Marie Antoinette facing the mob at the Tuileries Palace, June 1792. source: Wikipedia

After a failed attempt to escape Paris in 1791 ended what little support was left for the monarchy, the royal family was held under house arrest at the Tuileries Palace.  On June 20, 1792, a mob broke into the Palace, threatening the Queen’s life.  Spared this time, her luck would not be so good several months later when another mob stormed the palace on August 10, 1792.  This time, the family sought refuge at the Legislative Assembly but were arrested several days later, and imprisoned at the Temple.  On September 21, 1792, France officially abolished the monarchy and became a Republic.  Marie Antoinette, her husband, and their family were stripped of their titles and honors, becoming known simply as Monsieur and Madame Capet.

King Louis XVI was soon separated from his family and charged with undermining the French Republic.  He was tried, found guilty, and sentenced to death.  The former King Louis XVI was executed by guillotine on January 21, 1793.

Marie Antoinette while a prisoner at The Temple, painted by Alexandre Kucharski c1792. source: Wikipedia

Marie Antoinette while a prisoner at The Temple, painted by Alexandre Kucharski c1792. source: Wikipedia

While held as a prisoner in the Temple, Marie Antoinette and her children were the cause of much debate, as the National Convention tried to determine what should be done with the former Queen.  While some argued she should be put to death, others suggested holding her for ransom from the Holy Roman Empire, exchanging her for French prisoners of war, or exiling her to America.  In July 1793, her son was taken from her, with the intent of turning him against his mother.  Weeks later, on August 1, she was taken from the Temple and placed in a small cell in the Conciergerie. The once Queen of the French was now known as ‘Prisoner No. 280’.

On October 14, 1793, Marie Antoinette was tried by the Revolutionary Tribunal.  Among other things, she was charged with organizing orgies at Versailles, sending millions in French treasury money to Austria, and planning the massacre of the National Guards. There were also charges of incest with her son.  Two days later, she was found guilty of the main charges and sentenced to death.

Execution of Marie Antoinette, source: Wikipedia

Execution of Marie Antoinette, source: Wikipedia

Just after noon on October 16, 1793, Marie Antoinette was executed by guillotine in the Place de la Révolution (now the Place de la Concorde). She was buried in an unmarked grave in the Madeleine Cemetery. In 1815, her remains, along with those of her husband, were re-interred at the Basilica of Saint-Denis.

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King Louis XVI of France

by Scott Mehl  © Unofficial Royalty 2016

King Louis XVI of France; Credit – Wikipedia

King Louis XVI of France reigned from 1774 until 1792, losing his throne and his life as a result of the French Revolution. He was born Louis-Auguste, Duc de Berry, on August 23, 1754, at the Palace of Versailles in Versailles, France,  the third son of Louis, Dauphin of France (son of King Louis XV) and Maria Josepha of Saxony. He had seven siblings:

As a younger son, Louis-Auguste was not given the same attention his older brother received. But he excelled in his studies – Latin, history, geography, and astronomy, and became fluent in several languages. As his older brother had died, Louis-Auguste became the Dauphin – heir to the French throne – upon his father’s death in 1765 from tuberculosis. His mother died two years later. His education continued under the direction of the Duc de La Vauguyon, studying religion, humanities, and morality. He would later find that he was unprepared to assume the throne.

In 1770, his grandfather King Louis XV allied with Empress Maria Theresa of Austria, and soon a marriage was arranged between the two dynasties. Louis-Auguste became engaged to Empress Maria Theresa’s youngest daughter Maria Antonia. The two were second cousins, once removed, through their mutual descent from Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor.

The marriage of Louis-Auguste and Maria Antoinette, May 16, 1770. source: Wikipedia

The marriage of Louis-Auguste and Maria Antoinette, May 16, 1770. source: Wikipedia

After a marriage by proxy at the Augustinian Church in Vienna, Austria, the young bride took on the French version of her name Marie Antoinette, and soon made her way to France. The couple first met on May 14, 1770, in Compiègne, France, and were married two days later in the chapel at the Palace of Versailles. Because of the recent Seven Years’ War, and the general animosity toward Austria, there was much public hostility against the marriage. Eventually, despite not having consummated their marriage until 1777, the couple had four children:

Queen Marie Antoinette with the couple's three eldest children, painted by Marie Louise Élisabeth Vigée-Lebrun, c1786. source: Wikipedia

Queen Marie Antoinette with the couple’s three eldest children, painted by Marie Louise Élisabeth Vigée-Lebrun, c1786. source: Wikipedia

Upon his grandfather’s death, Louis-Auguste became King Louis XVI of France on May 10, 1774. Just 19 years old, and notably unprepared for his role, he faced growing distrust of the monarchy and a country deeply in debt. However, he initially gained support from the French people, often considering public opinion when making decisions. His coronation was held on June 11, 1775, at the Cathédrale Notre-Dame de Reims.  In 1787, he issued the Edict of Versailles, to counteract the religious persecution that had been in place since the Edict of Fontainebleau 102 years earlier. Non-Catholics in France were given the right to openly practice their religion, and received legal and civil status.

Loius XVI’s attempts at financial reforms angered the French people and contributed to the fall of the monarchy. As he saw his power diminishing, he was forced to convoke the Estates-General for the first time since 1614, to come up with solutions to the dire financial problems of the French government. Divided into three groups – the clergy (First Estate), the nobility (Second Estate), and the common people (Third Estate), they quickly came to an impasse over how votes would be taken. Eventually, in June 1789, the Third Estate declared itself as the National Assembly and asked the other two to join them, bringing about the outbreak of the French Revolution. Just weeks later, the revolutionaries stormed the Bastille. Within months, King Louis XVI saw the majority of his power handed over to the elected representatives of the French people.

With growing distrust in the monarchy and a quickly spreading hatred of the Austrian Queen Marie Antoinette, compounded once again by the King’s inability or unwillingness to make, and stick to, strong decisions, he soon found that he was losing the support of the more moderate politicians in the French government.  On October 5, 1789, an angry mob of women marched to Versailles, gaining entry to the palace with plans to kill Queen Marie Antoinette. After the intervention of the Marquis de Lafayette who calmed the crowd, the King and his family were brought to the Tuileries Palace in Paris.

The King and his family being brought back to Paris, June 25, 1791. From a drawing by Jean-Louis Prieur. source: Wikipedia

The King and his family being brought back to Paris, June 25, 1791. From a drawing by Jean-Louis Prieur. source: Wikipedia

With the monarchy’s future looking very bleak, King Louis XVI planned to escape Paris, to Montmédy in northeastern France where he would initiate a counter-revolution by joining with royalist troops. Know as the Flight to Varennes, the plan failed miserably.  Know as the Flight to Varennes, the plan failed miserably. On June 21, 1791, the King and his family secretly fled the palace but were captured and arrested the following day. Once again, the King’s indecisiveness and his misguided belief that the majority of his people supported him, led to the plan falling apart. Brought back to the Tuileries Palace, the family was placed under heavy security to prevent another chance of escape. Weeks later, on July 6, Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor, and brother of Queen Marie Antoinette, issued the Padua Circular, calling on the other sovereigns of Europe to join together in demanding that King Louis XVI be given his freedom.

On August 27, 1791, Leopold II and King Friedrich Wilhelm II of Prussia issued the Declaration of Pillnitz, stating their support for King Louis XVI against the French Revolution. Interpreting this as the Emperor’s intention to go to war, the National Assembly instead declared war on Austria on April 20, 1792. However, the insufficient number of troops and the military’s disorganization caused their efforts to fail miserably. Soon, the Duke of Brunswick led a joint Prussian and Austrian army into France. On July 25, 1792, he issued the Brunswick Manifesto, stating that the Prussians and Austrians intended to restore King Louis XVI to his full power and would support this effort by any force necessary. The manifesto proved to be more harmful than helpful. To many, this reinforced their belief that the King was conspiring against his own country. Within weeks, the people revolted, storming the Tuileries Palace and forcing the royal family to take refuge in the Legislative Assembly on August 10, 1792.

The following day, King Louis XVI was arrested and imprisoned in the Temple in Paris. Five weeks later, on September 21, the National Assembly declared a Republic, abolishing the monarchy, and stripping the King and his family of all their titles and honors. The former King of France was now known as Citizen Louis Capet. The King was brought to trial in December 1792, with 33 charges against him. Despite bringing together some of the most esteemed legal experts to mount his defense, the King was found guilty on January 15, 1793. The following day, the National Convention, by a narrow margin, voted in favor of execution.

The Execution of King Louis XVI. source: Wikipedia

The Execution of King Louis XVI. source: Wikipedia

On the morning of January 21, 1793, Louis made his final confession and attended Mass. He then traveled by carriage from the Tower, through the streets of Paris, to the Place de la Révolution (now the Place de la Concorde) where he was beheaded by guillotine. His body was taken to the Madeleine Cemetery, where a brief memorial service was held. His remains were dumped from their coffin into a grave, with his severed head placed at his feet. Years later, in 1815, on the anniversary of the King’s execution, the remains of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette,  also executed, were reinterred at the Basilica of Saint-Denis. On the site of his original burial, in the churchyard of La Madeleine, now stands the Chapelle expiatoire, built by King Louis XVIII in honor of his elder brother.

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Caroline Matilda of Wales, Queen of Denmark and Norway

by Susan Flantzer  © Unofficial Royalty 2016

Caroline Matilda of Wales, Queen of Denmark and Norway; Credit – Wikipedia

In 1751, Frederick, Prince of Wales, heir to the throne and son of King George II of Great Britain, died at the age of 44. He left eight children, including the future King George III, and a pregnant wife Augusta of Saxe-Coburg-Altenburg. Four months later, on July 22, 1751, at Leicester House in London, England, Princess Caroline Matilda of Wales was born.

Caroline Matilda had eight older siblings:

Family of Frederick, Prince of Wales painted in 1751 after the prince’s death; Credit – Wikipedia Front row: Henry, William, Frederick; Back row: Edward, George, Augusta, Dowager Princess of Wales holding Caroline Matilda, Elizabeth, Louisa

The new princess was christened Caroline Matilda, Caroline after her late paternal grandmother Caroline of Ansbach and Matilda after her Norman and Angevin ancestors, on August 1, 1751, at Leicester House in London by Thomas Hayter, Bishop of Norwich.  She was called Caroline Matilda to avoid confusion with her paternal aunt, one of her godparents.

Caroline Matilda’s godparents:

Caroline Matilda, age three; Credit – Wikipedia

Caroline Matilda, considered the most attractive of the four sisters, was educated with her elder sister by two years, Louisa. While Caroline Matilda loved being outdoors and riding, Louisa suffered from poor health and eventually died of tuberculosis at the age of 19. Caroline Matilda was well educated, as were all her siblings, and could speak French, German, and Italian. Her two eldest brothers George and Edward moved out of Leicester House to their own household when Caroline Matilda was five years old. Her sister Elizabeth, who also suffered from delicate health like Louisa, died in 1759 at the age of 18.

In 1760, Caroline Matilda’s grandfather King George II died and her brother succeeded to the throne as King George III. In 1764, her eldest sister Augusta married Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand, Hereditary Prince of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, and left for her new home. Certainly, Caroline Matilda knew that royal children did not marry for love and that only unmarried princesses such as her paternal aunts Princess Amelia and her godmother Princess Caroline stayed home in England. She certainly saw what it was like for Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, her brother George’s 17-year-old bride, when she arrived in England alone, terrified, and unable to speak English.

Caroline Matilda (seated) and her sister Louisa Credit – Wikipedia

Another of Caroline Matilda’s paternal aunts Princess Louisa had married King Frederik V of Denmark and Norway. Louisa had given birth to five children in five years before her death at age 27 due to complications from a miscarriage. In 1766, Caroline Matilda’s 17-year-old first cousin succeeded to the Danish throne as King Christian VII after the early death of his father. Since there was a connection between the British and Danish royal families and both families were Protestant, it was natural that a British bride should be sought for Christian. Even before the death of King Frederik V, negotiations for such a marriage were started. The preferred choice for a bride was initially Caroline Matilda’s sister Princess Louisa. However, when the Danish representative in London heard of her ill health, Caroline Matilda became the prospective bride. The betrothal was announced on January 10, 1765.

King Christian VII of Denmark and Norway, Credit – Wikipedia

On October 1, 1766, a proxy marriage was held at St. James’s Palace in London, with Caroline Matilda’s brother King George III standing in for King Christian VII. Fifteen-year-old Caroline Matilda soon left England for Denmark with a large contingent of attendants and servants. When she crossed the Danish border, Danish envoys sent her English attendants and servants back and replaced them with Danish ones. Caroline Matilda arrived in Copenhagen on November 8, 1766, and married Christian in person later that day in the Christiansborg Palace Chapel.

A copperplate engraving depicting the first dance of King Christian VII and Queen Caroline Mathilde at their wedding at Christiansborg Palace; Credit – Wikipedia

Caroline Matilda and Christian had two children but probably, Christian was not the father of Louise Auguste.

Engraving of the newborn Crown Prince Frederik with his mother Queen Caroline Matilda; Credit – Wikipedia

Princess Louise Auguste as a child; Credit – Wikipedia

Caroline Matilda soon became a victim of the intrigues of Queen Dowager Juliana Maria, the second wife of Christian’s father, who coveted the succession for her son Frederik. Caroline Matilda also soon discovered that her husband was mentally ill. Christian was personable and intelligent as a child, but he was poorly educated and terrorized by a brutal governor, Christian Ditlev Reventlow, Count of Reventlow. It is unknown if Christian’s mental illness was caused by the brutal treatment of the Count of Reventlow, possible porphyria inherited from his Hanover mother, or schizophrenia. Christian’s behavior wandered into excesses, especially sexual promiscuity. He publicly declared that he could not love Caroline Matilda because it was “unfashionable to love one’s wife”. His symptoms included paranoia, self-mutilation, and hallucinations.

In May 1768, Christian VII took a long tour of Europe, including stays in Altona (now in Germany, then in Denmark), Paris, and London. The trip had been arranged because it was believed that new environments could change Christian’s behavior. On this journey, Christian became acquainted with the physician Johann Friedrich Struensee.  Struensee was the first person who understood that Christian was seriously ill.  When Christian came home from the trip, Struensee accompanied him and was employed as Christian’s personal physician. Struensee could handle Christian’s instability, which was a great relief to the king’s advisers, and Christian developed confidence in him.

Johann Friedrich Struensee; Credit – Wikipedia

Because of Christian’s confidence in him, Struensee gained political power. In 1770, Struensee became Master of Requests and Minister of the Royal Cabinet. He also became the lover of the ill-treated Caroline Matilda, whose marriage was less than satisfactory. When Caroline Matilda gave birth to her daughter Louise Auguste, no one doubted that Struensee was the father of the princess, who was given the unflattering nickname la petite Struensee, although Christian VII officially acknowledged her as his daughter. Eventually, Queen Dowager Juliana Maria maneuvered a coup that would bring about the fall of Struensee and discredit Caroline Matilda.

Early on the morning of January 17, 1772, following a ball at the court theater at Christiansborg Palace, Christian was awakened and forced to sign orders for the arrest of Struensee, his friend Count Enevold Brandt, and Caroline Matilda. Caroline Matilda was immediately taken to Kronberg Castle in Helsingør, Denmark, immortalized as Elsinore in William Shakespeare’s play Hamlet, to await her fate. She was allowed to keep her daughter with her, but the four-year-old Crown Prince Frederik stayed with his father. Upon hearing of Caroline Matilda’s arrest, Struensee confessed to his relationship with her, and eventually, Caroline Matilda also confessed. Struensee and Brandt were condemned to death and both suffered brutal executions. In the presence of thousands of people, their right hands were severed first, then their bodies were broken on the wheel, and finally, they were beheaded.

Johann Friedrich Struensee and his companion Brandt are beheaded in Copenhagen on April 28, 1772; Credit – Wikipedia

Caroline Matilda and Christian’s marriage was dissolved on April 6, 1772.  She lost her title of Queen and was forcibly separated from her children whom she never saw again. Caroline Matilda was not quite 20 years old. Originally, it was decided that Caroline Matilda was to be held in custody for life at Aalborghus Castle in Aalborg, Denmark, but her brother King George III intervened. King George III sent Sir Robert Murray Keith, a British diplomat, to negotiate her release from Danish imprisonment. On May 28, 1772, Caroline Matilda was sent to Celle in her brother’s Kingdom of Hanover and lived the rest of her life at Celle Castle.

Celle Castle; Credit – Wikipedia

Caroline Matilda’s dowry was restored and she was able to live in comfort, but she missed her children terribly. Her imprisonment was not to last long. Caroline Matilda died of “a putrid fever and sore throat,” probably scarlet fever, on May 10, 1775, at the age of 23 at Celle Castle in Celle, Duchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg, now in Lower Saxony, Germany. She was buried at the Stadtkirche St. Marien in Celle next to his great-grandmother Sophie Dorothea of Celle who suffered a similar fate.

Stadtkirche St. Marien in Celle, Germany; Credit – Wikipedia

Caroline Matilda’s story was told in several novels including Norah Loft’s The Last Queen (1969) and Per Olov Enquist’s The Visit of the Royal Physician (1999) and also in the Danish film A Royal Affair (2012). Stella Tillyard also covers Caroline Matilda’s affair in her nonfiction book A Royal Affair: George III and His Scandalous Siblings (2006). King George III’s six daughters had very sheltered upbringings and they spent most of their time with their parents and each other. The living conditions of King George III’s daughters came to be known as “the Nunnery.” None of the daughters was allowed to marry at the age when most princesses would marry, and only three of the six daughters ever married. Perhaps this over-protection of King George III’s daughters was due to what happened to his sister Caroline Matilda when she married King Christian VII of Denmark.

The people of Celle raised money for a monument to Caroline Matilda which stands in the French Garden in Celle, now in Lower Saxony, Germany.

The Caroline Matilda Memorial in Celle; Credit – Wikipedia

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Kingdom of Denmark Resources at Unofficial Royalty

Works Cited
“Caroline Matilda of Great Britain.” Wikipedia. N.p.: Wikimedia Foundation, 9 Sept. 2016. Web. 10 Sept. 2016.
“Christian VII of Denmark.” Wikipedia. N.p.: Wikimedia Foundation, 31 Aug. 2016. Web. 10 Sept. 2016.
Hadlow, Janice. A Royal Experiment. New York: Picador, 2014. Print.
“Johann Friedrich Struensee.” Wikipedia. N.p.: Wikimedia Foundation, 27 Aug. 2016. Web. 10 Sept. 2016.
Susan. “Sophia Dorothea of Celle, Electoral Princess of Hanover.” British Royals. Unofficial Royalty, 18 Dec. 2015. Web. 10 Sept. 2016.
Tillyard, Stella. A Royal Affair: George III and His Scandalous Siblings. New York: Random House, 2006. Print.
Williamson, David. Brewer’s British Royalty. London: Cassell, 1996. Print.

Princess Augusta of Wales, Duchess of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel

by Susan Flantzer © Unofficial Royalty 2016

Augusta of Wales, Duchess of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel; Credit – Wikipedia

Born on July 31, 1737, at St. James’ Palace in London, Princess Augusta of Wales was the eldest of the nine children of Frederick, Prince of Wales and Augusta of Saxe-Gotha, Princess of Wales. Born during the reign of her grandfather King George II of Great Britain, Augusta was the elder sister of King George III, the mother of King George IV‘s wife Caroline of Brunswick, and the grandmother of their daughter Princess Charlotte of Wales.

True to the Hanoverian tradition, Augusta’s father Frederick, the eldest son, did not get along with his parents. When it was announced that the Princess of Wales was pregnant with her first child, Queen Caroline doubted that there was a pregnancy and then doubted that her son was the father. She told Robert Walpole, “At her labour I positively will be present. I will be sure it is her child.” Agreeing with Queen Caroline, King George II insisted that the birth should take place in their presence at Hampton Court Palace.

When the Princess of Wales went into labor in the middle of the night at Hampton Court Palace where King George I and Queen Caroline were in residence, Frederick insisted that Augusta endure a bumpy carriage ride back to St. James’ Palace in London to prevent his hated parents from being present at the birth. Of course, there was no preparation for the birth and there was a frantic search for napkins, tablecloths, and warming pans to be used during the baby’s delivery. The couple’s first child Augusta was born within an hour of her mother’s arrival at Hampton Court Palace. John Hervey, 2nd Baron Hervey saw Augusta within a few hours of her birth and described the infant as “a little rat of a girl about the bigness of a good large toothpick case.”

When Queen Caroline was told how tiny the new princess was, she conceded that Frederick was the father. Afterward, the king ordered them to leave St. James’ Palace and they moved to Kew Palace. The Queen paid a visit to Frederick and Augusta before they left St. James’ Palace and expressed a wish that she never see them again. Queen Caroline got her wish as she died several months later without reconciling with her son and daughter-in-law.

The infant princess was christened Augusta Frederica on August 29, 1737, at St James’ Palace by John Potter, Archbishop of Canterbury.  Augusta’s paternal grandparents King George II and Queen Caroline were named as her godparents, but neither came to the christening and were represented by a proxy.

Augusta’s godparents were:

Augusta had eight younger siblings:

Family of Frederick, Prince of Wales painted in 1751 after the prince’s death; Credit – Wikipedia Front row: Henry, William, Frederick; Back row: Edward, George, Augusta, Dowager Princess of Wales holding Caroline Matilda, Elizabeth, Louisa

The family of Frederick, Prince of Wales lived at Leicester House which stood on present-day Leicester Square in London. In 1751, when Augusta was 13, her father Frederick, Prince of Wales died, leaving a pregnant widow with eight children. King George II then created his grandson George Prince of Wales. Augusta was a rather boisterous child and not afraid to express her opinions. She loved music, acting, and dancing, and participated in amateur theatricals, a favorite pastime of the royal family.

Augusta at the age of 17 by Jean-Etienne Liotard, 1754; Credit – Wikipedia

On October 25, 1760, King George II died, and his grandson became King George III at the age of 22. George’s choice for a wife fell upon an obscure German princess, Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. On September 8, 1761, at 10 PM, George and Charlotte married in the Chapel Royal of St. James’ Palace. On September 22, 1761, their coronation was held at Westminster Abbey.

Around the same time, negotiations for a marriage between Augusta and Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand, Hereditary Prince of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel were being held. Augusta and Karl were both great-grandchildren of King George I of Great Britain, so they were second cousins. The negotiations were slow because Augusta’s mother, now The Dowager Princess of Wales, did not like the House of Brunswick. Finally, the marriage negotiations were settled and Karl came to England in January of 1764 to marry Augusta. Karl had a military career during the Seven Years’ War of 1756-63 serving in the Hanoverian Army of Observation under Prince William, Duke of Cumberland, Augusta’s paternal uncle. On January 16, 1764, Augusta and Karl were married at the Chapel Royal, St. James’s Palace.

Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand, Hereditary Prince of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel by Gerrit Kamphuysen, 1763; Credit – Wikipedia

The couple had seven children:

Augusta with her firstborn son Karl by Angelica Kauffman, 1767; Credit – Wikipedia

In March 1780, Karl succeeded his father as reigning Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. By that time, Augusta and Karl had four sons and three surviving daughters. Three of the couple’s four sons suffered from disabilities. Their eldest son Karl was named heir apparent but suffered from a significant learning disability. However, he married Frederika of Orange-Nassau, daughter of William V, Prince of Orange, who remained devoted to him. He died childless at the age of 40, shortly before his father. The second son, Georg suffered from an even more severe learning disability than his elder brother. He never married, was declared incapacitated, and was excluded from the succession. The couple’s third son August was blind, was also excluded from the succession, and also never married. The fourth son Friedrich Wilhelm had no health or developmental issues and eventually succeeded his father, married, and had children.

Augusta’s son, Friedrich Wilhelm, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel by Johann Christian August Schwartz, 1809; Credit – Wikipedia

Augusta never fully adapted to life in Brunswick nor was she well-liked.  Any popularity she had was damaged by the fact that her three eldest sons were born with handicaps. Although Augusta reported to her brother King George III that her marriage was happy, it was unhappy. Karl found Augusta dull and preferred to spend time with his mistresses.

In 1794, Augusta’s second daughter Caroline was chosen as a wife for her first cousin George, Prince of Wales (the future King George IV). Caroline was rebellious and a tomboy who preferred playing with her brothers instead of with girls. She grew up not very educated in her mother Augusta’s uncultured court. Like many German princesses, she was brought up with no religious instruction to keep her options open for marriage to a prince of any religion. James Harris, 1st Earl of Malmesbury had been sent to Brunswick to escort Caroline to England. Lord Malmesbury was astounded by her behavior and personal hygiene, and he blamed Caroline’s mother Augusta.  He wrote about Caroline’s hygiene: “It is remarkable how on this point her education has been neglected, and how her mother, though an Englishwoman, was inattentive to it.” Nevertheless, Caroline and George were married on April 8, 1795, at the Chapel Royal, St. James’ Palace in London.

Caroline of Brunswick shortly before her wedding; Credit – Wikipedia

The marriage of Caroline of Brunswick and the future King George IV is one of the worst-ever royal marriages. Upon first seeing Caroline, George said to one of his attendants, “Harris, I am not well; pray get me a glass of brandy.” Caroline said George was fat and not as handsome as his portrait. It is doubtful that the couple spent more than a few nights together as husband and wife. Their only child, Princess Charlotte of Wales, was born nine months later. They found each other equally unattractive and never lived together or appeared in public together. Caroline was prevented from seeing her daughter. She eventually went to live abroad where she ran up debts and had lovers. Caroline returned to England when her husband George became king and he promptly started divorce proceedings. However, a parliamentary bill dissolving the marriage and stripping Caroline of her title of Queen failed. Caroline was turned away from Westminster Abbey during her husband’s coronation in 1821. She died a few weeks later and her remains were shipped back to her native Brunswick where she was buried at Brunswick Cathedral. The inscription on her tomb reads, “Here lies Caroline, the Injured Queen of England.”

Augusta and her husband Karl; Credit – Wikipedia

In 1806, when Prussia declared war on France during the Napoleonic Wars, 71-year-old Karl, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel was appointed the commander-in-chief of the Prussian Army. Karl was mortally wounded at the Battle of Jena and died a few weeks later. Brunswick was occupied by the French and the widowed and nearly penniless Augusta escaped to Sweden with two of her sons and a widowed daughter-in-law. In 1807, Augusta’s brother King George III sent a British naval ship to transport his sister back home to England.

Augusta was reunited with her brother King George III at Windsor Castle, but her sister-in-law Queen Charlotte, whom she never got along with, was not so cordial. Augusta lived at Montagu House in Blackheath, London with her daughter Caroline, Princess of Wales. Augusta got to know her granddaughter Princess Charlotte of Wales, who told her grandmother upon their first meeting “that she was the merriest old woman she ever saw.” In 1810, Augusta moved to a house on Hanover Square in London, and it was there that she died on March 23, 1813, at the age of 75. She was buried in the Royal Vault at St. George’s Chapel, Windsor.

Works Cited
“Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel.” Wikipedia. N.p.: Wikimedia Foundation, 10 July 2016. Web. 25 Aug. 2016.
Fraser, Flora. Princesses: The Six Daughters of George III. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2004. Print.
Hadlow, Janice. A Royal Experiment. New York: Picador, 2014. Print.
Hibbert, Christopher. George III. New York: Basic Books, 1998. Print.
“Princess Augusta of Great Britain.” Wikipedia. N.p.: Wikimedia Foundation, 5 Aug. 2016. Web. 25 Aug. 2016.
Williamson, David. Brewer’s British Royalty. London: Cassell, 1996. Print.

This article is the intellectual property of Unofficial Royalty and is NOT TO BE COPIED, EDITED, OR POSTED IN ANY FORM ON ANOTHER WEBSITE under any circumstances. It is permissible to use a link that directs to Unofficial Royalty.