Operation London Bridge was the codename for the detailed set of plans following the death of Queen Elizabeth II. The plans had long been planned in consultation with the Government. The following is what happened on Friday, September 9, 2022.

• King Charles III and Queen Camilla stayed at Balmoral overnight on Thursday and returned to London on Friday.
• King Charles III had his first audience as monarch with Prime Minister Liz Truss.
• King Charles III met with Edward Fitzalan-Howard, 18th Duke of Norfolk who holds the office of Earl Marshal of England and is responsible for the organization of major ceremonial state occasions such as the monarch’s coronation in Westminster Abbey and state funerals. They approved the plans for the events that will happen on the upcoming days. The plans incorporated Operation Unicorn, the contingency plans for the death of The Queen in Scotland.
• King Charles III decided on the length of court mourning for members of the royal family and royal households.
• The Government confirmed the length of national mourning. They announced that the funeral day will be a public holiday in the form of a Day of National Mourning. Union flags on royal buildings will fly at half-mast. The Royal Standard never flies half-mast. It represents the Sovereign and the United Kingdom and is a symbol of the continuation of the monarchy.
• Bells tolled at Westminster Abbey, St. Paul’s Cathedral, and Windsor Castle, and gun salutes – one round for every year of The Queen’s life – were fired in Hyde Park and at other places. Floodlighting at royal residences was turned off.
• King Charles III made a pre-recorded televised address to the nation, paying tribute to The Queen and pledging his duty to his service as the new sovereign.
• Prime Minister Liz Truss and senior ministers attended a public service of remembrance at St. Paul’s Cathedral in London.

by Susan Flantzer
© Unofficial Royalty 2022

George Plantagenet, Duke of Clarence; Credit – Wikipedia

Born at Dublin Castle in Dublin, Ireland on October 21, 1449, George Plantagenet, Duke of Clarence was the ninth but the sixth surviving of the twelve children and the sixth but the third surviving of the eight sons of Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York, and Cecily Neville, both great-grandchildren of King Edward III of England, and the brother of two Kings of England, Edward IV and Richard III. George’s paternal grandparents were Richard of Conisbrough, 3rd Earl of Cambridge and his first wife Anne Mortimer. His maternal grandparents were Ralph Neville, 1st Earl of Westmorland and his second wife Joan Beaufort.

George had eleven siblings:

• Anne of York (1439 – 1476), married (1) Henry Holland, 3rd Duke of Exeter, had one daughter (2) Sir Thomas St. Leger, Anne died giving birth to a daughter
• Henry of York (born and died 1441), died in infancy
• Edward IV, King of England (1442 – 1483), married Elizabeth Woodville, had ten children including the ill-fated Edward V, King of England and Elizabeth of York, wife of Henry VII, King of England
• Edmund, Earl of Rutland (1443 – 1460), unmarried killed at the Battle of Wakefield, during the Wars of the Roses
• Elizabeth of York (1444 – circa 1503), wife of John de la Pole, 2nd Duke of Suffolk, had eleven children
• Margaret of York (1446 – 1503), married Charles I (the Bold), Duke of Burgundy, no children
• William of York (born and died 1447), died in infancy
• John of York (born and died 1448), died in infancy
• Thomas of York (born and died circa 1450/1451), died in infancy
• Richard III, King of England (1452 – 1485), married Anne Neville, had one son Edward of Middleham, Prince of Wales who predeceased his father, Richard III was killed at the Battle of Bosworth Field
• Ursula of York (born and died 1455), died in infancy

George’s father Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York, detail from the frontispiece of the illuminated manuscript Talbot Shrewsbury Book; Credit – Wikipedia

George’s father Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York was the leader of the House of York during the Wars of the Roses until his death in battle in 1460. In 1399, Henry of Bolingbroke, the eldest son of John of Gaunt who was the third surviving son of King Edward III, deposed his first cousin King Richard II and assumed the throne as King Henry IV. Henry IV’s reigning house was the House of Lancaster as his father was Duke of Lancaster and Henry had assumed the title upon his father’s death. Henry IV’s eldest son King Henry V retained the throne, but he died when his only child, King Henry VI, was just nine months old. Henry VI’s right to the crown was challenged by Margaret’s father Richard, 3rd Duke of York, who could claim descent from Edward III’s second and fourth surviving sons, Lionel of Antwerp, 1st Duke of Clarence and Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York.

During the early reign of King Henry VI, George’s father held several important offices and quarreled with the Lancastrians at court. In 1448, he assumed the surname Plantagenet and then assumed the leadership of the Yorkist faction in 1450. The first battle in the long dynastic struggle called the Wars of the Roses was the First Battle of St. Albans in 1455. As soon as George’s brothers Edward, the future King Edward IV, known then as the Earl of March, and Edmund, Earl of Rutland were old enough, they joined their father, fighting for the Yorkist cause. Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York was killed on December 30, 1460, at the Battle of Wakefield along with his son Edmund who was only 17 years old.

George’s brother King Edward IV of England; Credit – Wikipedia

George’s brother Edward, Earl of March (the future King Edward IV) was now the leader of the Yorkist faction. On February 3, 1461, Edward defeated the Lancastrian army at the Battle of Mortimer’s Cross. Edward then took a bold step and declared himself King of England on March 4, 1461. His decisive victory over the Lancastrians at the Battle of Towton on March 29, 1461, cemented his status as King of England. He was crowned at Westminster Abbey on June 28, 1461. However, the former king, Henry VI, still lived and fled to Scotland. Henry VI returned from Scotland in 1464 and took part in an ineffective uprising. In 1465, Henry VI was captured and taken to the Tower of London.

In 1461, twelve-year-old George was created Duke of Clarence, and despite his young age, he was appointed Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. While growing up during his brother’s reign, George lived mostly at Greenwich Palace with his elder sister Margaret, until her marriage to Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy in 1468, and his younger brother Richard, the future King Richard III. In 1466, fifteen-year-old George was recognized as an adult and given estates that centered around Tutbury Castle in Staffordshire.

Among King Edward IV’s strongest supporters was his first cousin Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick, known as the Kingmaker. In 1468, Warwick began to have doubts about his continued support of King Edward IV. He decided to throw his lot in with someone who he might be able to control better: George Plantagenet, Duke of Clarence. At this point, King Edward IV had only three daughters and his brother George was his senior male heir. As the senior male heir, George created an ostentatious, alternative court. He was willful, self-centered, and scheming.

Stained glass window of George, Duke of Clarence and his wife Isabel Neville at Cardiff Cathedral; Credit – By Wolfgang Sauber – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=16924164

In 1467, George schemed to arrange a marriage for himself with his first cousin once removed Isabel Neville, the elder of the two daughters of Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick. King Edward IV refused to give his permission for the marriage because the marriage would strengthen the alliance between George and Warwick. George, who was used to getting his own way, fell under Warwick’s influence. On July 11, 1469, in the direct defiance of King Edward IV, George married Isabel Neville in a ceremony conducted by Isabel’s uncle George Neville, Archbishop of York at Notre-Dame Church in Calais, then an English possession, now in France.

George and Isabel had four children:

• Anne of Clarence (born and died 1470), born and died on a ship off Calais
• Margaret Pole, 8th Countess of Salisbury (1473 – 1541), married Sir Richard Pole, had five children, executed by King Henry VIII
• Edward Plantagenet, 17th Earl of Warwick (1475 – 1499), unmarried, executed by King Henry VII
• Richard of Clarence (1476 – 1477), died in childhood

When George’s father-in-law Warwick deserted King Edward IV to go over to the Lancaster side and ally with Margaret of Anjou, the wife of King Henry VI, George also deserted his brother. George, Warwick, and Margaret of Anjou’s alliance forced King Edward IV into exile, and King Henry VI was restored to the throne on October 30, 1470. King Henry VI rewarded Clarence by making him next in line to the throne after his own son.

After a short time, George realized that his loyalty to his father-in-law and first cousin Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick was misplaced. Warwick had married his younger daughter Anne Neville to Edward, Prince of Wales who was the only child of King Henry VI. This demonstrated that Warwick was less interested in making George king and was more interested in serving his own interests. It now seemed unlikely that Warwick would replace King Edward IV with George, and so George was secretly reconciled with his brother King Edward IV.

In 1470, Edward and his brother Richard, Duke of Gloucester (later King Richard III) had fled to Burgundy where they knew they would be welcomed by their sister Margaret, who was the wife of Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy. The Duke of Burgundy provided funds and troops to Edward to enable him to launch an invasion of England in 1471. Edward returned to England in early 1471 and his first cousin Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick was killed at the Battle of Barnet. The final decisive Yorkist victory was at the Battle of Tewkesbury on May 4, 1471, where King Henry VI’s son Edward, Prince of Wales was killed. Henry VI was returned to the Tower of London and died on May 21, 1471, probably murdered on orders from Edward IV. Edward IV remained King of England until his death in 1483, a few weeks before his 41st birthday.

King Edward IV restored his brother George to royal favor by making him the Lord Great Chamberlain of England. After the death of his first cousin and father-in-law Warwick, George became Earl of Warwick jure uxoris, by the right of his wife. However, George did not inherit the entire Warwick estate as his younger brother Richard, Duke of Gloucester married Warwick’s younger daughter Anne Neville, the widow of King Henry VI’s son Edward, Prince of Wales. The Warwick estate was divided equally between George and Richard.

George’s wife Isabel, aged twenty-five, died on December 22, 1476, after giving birth to a short-lived son Richard, who was born on October 5, 1476, and died on January 1, 1477. It is thought Isabel died from tuberculosis or childbirth complications. George’s mental state, never stable, deteriorated. Four months after Isabel’s death, George ridiculously accused Ankarette Twynyho, one of Isabel’s ladies-in-waiting of having murdered her. George sat in personal judgment of Ankarette who was accused of giving Isabel “a venomous drink of ale mixed with poison”. Within three hours, the innocent Ankarette was taken to court, indicted for murder, tried, found guilty, dragged through the streets, and hanged. George did not have the legal authority to try, condemn, and execute Ankarette Twynyho. In 1478, after petitioning King Edward IV, Ankarette’s grandson Roger Twynyho received a full pardon for Ankarette from the king.

In 1477, three men were arrested, tried, convicted, and sentenced to be executed for predicting King Edward IV’s death, considered witchcraft. One man who had been one of George’s servants was pardoned. Two days after the executions, George marched into a council meeting, read a declaration of innocence of the two dead men and George’s servant, and marched out again. George’s association with his convicted servant and his strong defense of convicted traitors raised serious suspicions about George’s motives.

George’s behavior convinced his brother King Edward IV that he was too dangerous to leave alone. The king, and many suspected his wife Elizabeth Woodville, had endured enough of George’s treachery and scheming, and so George was arrested. He was tried for treason by Parliament in January 1478, although the outcome was a foregone conclusion. George’s past misdemeanors were gathered together into a package of damning crimes. King Edward IV, unsupported by any legal counsel, delivered a damning case against his brother. George refused the right of an attorney in his defense. Members of Parliament were told that George had tried to smuggle his son to Ireland or Burgundy, and claimed he plotted against the king. He had also kept the document granted to him when King Henry VI had been restored, making George heir to the Lancastrian line if it failed, which it had in 1471. In early February 1478, Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham, husband of King Edward IV’s sister-in-law Catherine Woodville, delivered the verdict to Parliament. George was found guilty of high treason.

Memorial plaque to George Plantagenet, Duke of Clarence and his wife Isabel Neville at Tewksbury Abbey; Credit – Richard III Society

For a few days, King Edward IV delayed making the final decision about carrying out the sentence his brother’s verdict demanded. On February 18, 1478, 28-year-old George, Duke of Clarence was executed at the Tower of London. As his rank allowed, George was executed in private. Having condemned his own brother, King Edward IV had no intention of making the execution a public spectacle and highlighting problems within his family. The means of execution has never been determined. Traditionally, it has been said that George was plunged headfirst into a butt of Malmsey wine and drowned. George Plantagenet and his wife Isabel Neville were both interred at Tewkesbury Abbey in Gloucestershire, England. Ironically, Edward of Westminster, Prince of Wales, the son of King Henry VI, who was killed in the Battle of Tewkesbury, is also buried at Tewkesbury Abbey.

Portrait of an unknown sitter, traditionally thought to be Margaret Pole, 8th Countess of Salisbury; Credit – Wikipedia

George’s two surviving children were also executed, but by beheading – Edward Plantagenet, 17th Earl of Warwick in 1499 by King Henry VII and Margaret Pole, 8th Countess of Salisbury in 1541 by King Henry VIII. As surviving members of the House of York, they were threats to the House of Tudor, which had been formed when Henry Tudor, the leader of the House of Lancaster defeated King Richard III of the House of York, the brother of King Edward IV and George, Duke of Clarence, at the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485. The new King Henry VII married King Edward IV’s eldest child Elizabeth of York, thereby uniting the House of Lancaster and the House of York.

This article is the intellectual property of Unofficial Royalty and is NOT TO BE COPIED, EDITED, OR POSTED IN ANY FORM ON ANOTHER WEBSITE under any circumstances. It is permissible to use a link that directs to Unofficial Royalty.

Works Cited

• En.wikipedia.org. 2022. George Plantagenet, Duke of Clarence – Wikipedia. [online] Available at: <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Plantagenet,_1st_Duke_of_Clarence> [Accessed 6 September 2022].
• En.wikipedia.org. 2022. Isabel Neville, Duchess of Clarence – Wikipedia. [online] Available at: <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isabel_Neville,_Duchess_of_Clarence> [Accessed 6 September 2022].
• Encyclopedia Britannica. 2022. George Plantagenet, duke of Clarence | English noble. [online] Available at: <https://www.britannica.com/biography/George-Plantagenet-duke-of-Clarence> [Accessed 6 September 2022].
• Flantzer, Susan, 2022. Cecily Neville, Duchess of York. [online] Unofficial Royalty. Available at: <https://www.unofficialroyalty.com/cecily-neville-duchess-of-york/> [Accessed 6 September  2022].
• Flantzer, Susan, 2016. King Edward IV of England. [online] Unofficial Royalty. Available at: <https://www.unofficialroyalty.com/king-edward-iv-of-england/> [Accessed 6 September  2022].
• Flantzer, Susan, 2022. Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York. [online] Unofficial Royalty. Available at: <https://www.unofficialroyalty.com/richard-plantagenet-3rd-duke-of-york/> [Accessed 6 September 2022].
• Jones, Dan, 2012. The Plantagenets. New York: Viking.
• Richard III Society. 2022. George, Duke of Clarence (Brother) – Richard III Society. [online] Available at: <https://richardiii.net/george-duke-of-clarence-his-brother/> [Accessed 6 September 2022].
• Weir, Alison, 1995. The Wars of the Roses. New York: Ballantine Books.
• Williamson, David, 1996. Brewer’s British Royalty. London: Cassell.

by Susan Flantzer
© Unofficial Royalty 2022

Constance of Normandy, Duchess of Brittany; Credit – Wikipedia

Constance was born circa 1057-1061 in the Duchy of Normandy, now part of France. She was the daughter of William III, Duke of Normandy and Matilda of Flanders. In 1066, Constance’s father, William III, Duke of Normandy, invaded England and defeated the last Anglo-Saxon King, Harold Godwinson at the Battle of Hastings. The Duke of Normandy was then also King William I of England, known as “the Conqueror”. Constance’s paternal grandparents were Robert I the Magnificent, Duke of Normandy and his mistress Herleva of Falaise. Her maternal grandparents were Baldwin V, Count of Flanders and Adèle of France, daughter of King Robert II of France.

Constance had at least nine siblings. The birth order of the boys is clear, but that of the girls is not. The list below is not in birth order. It lists Cecilia’s brothers first in their birth order and then his sisters in their probable birth order. Constance and her sisters were educated and taught to read Latin at the Abbey of the Holy Trinity (also known as the Abbaye-aux-Dames, Abbey of the Women) in Caen, Duchy of Normandy, which their mother Matilda of Flanders had founded.

• Robert Curthose, Duke of Normandy (1051-1054 – 1134), married Sybil of Conversano, had one son
• Richard of Normandy (circa 1054 – circa 1070), died in a hunting accident in the New Forest
• William II Rufus, King of England (1056-1060 – 1100), unmarried, killed in the New Forest
• Henry I, King of England (1068 – 1135), married (1) Matilda of Scotland, had one son and one daughter (2) Adeliza of Louvain, no children
• Agatha of Normandy died before 1074, unmarried
• Adeliza of Normandy (circa 1055 – before 1113), probably a nun at the Abbey of St Léger in Préaux, Duchy of Normandy
• Cecilia of Normandy (circa 1056 – 1127), Abbess of Holy Trinity in Caen, Duchess of Normandy
• Matilda of Normandy (circa 1061 – circa 1086)
• Adela of Normandy (circa 1067 – 1137), married Stephen II, Count of Blois, had ten children including King Stephen of England

There had been a traditional rivalry between the Duchy of Normandy, where Constance’s family had been the reigning Dukes of Normandy since 911, and the neighboring Duchy of Brittany. The Breton-Norman War of 1064 – 1065 resulted from William III, Duke of Normandy (Constance’s father and later William I, King of England) supporting the rebels in Brittany against Conan II, Duke of Brittany. When the unmarried Conan II died in 1066, he was succeeded by his sister Hawise as sovereign Duchess of Brittany and her husband Hoël of Cornouaille, who was co-ruler and Duke of Brittany jure uxoris (by the right of his wife). In 1072, Hawise died, and Hoël acted as regent for his son Alain IV, Duke of Brittany until 1084.

In 1086, Willam I, King of England forced an alliance on Alain IV and arranged a marriage between him and his daughter Constance. The couple married in a magnificent ceremony in Caen, Duchy of Normandy but had no children. Two chroniclers of the time had very different views of Constance. Orderic Vitalius wrote that Constance was caring and attentive to her husband’s subjects and that her death on August 13, 1090, was the greatest loss for the inhabitants of the duchy. However, William of Malmesbury wrote that her “harsh and conservative manner” of government made Constance unpopular in the duchy, and her husband ordered her servants to poison her. Constance was buried at the abbey church of Notre-Dame-en-Saint-Melaine (link in French) in Rennes, Duchy of Brittany, now in France.

This article is the intellectual property of Unofficial Royalty and is NOT TO BE COPIED, EDITED, OR POSTED IN ANY FORM ON ANOTHER WEBSITE under any circumstances. It is permissible to use a link that directs to Unofficial Royalty.

Works Cited

• En.wikipedia.org. 2022. Constance of Normandy – Wikipedia. [online] Available at: <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constance_of_Normandy> [Accessed 9 July 2022].
• Flantzer, Susan, 2016. King William I of England (the Conqueror). [online] Unofficial Royalty. Available at: <https://www.unofficialroyalty.com/king-william-i-of-england-the-conqueror/> [Accessed 89 July 2022].
• Ru.wikipedia.org. 2022. Констанция Нормандская — Википедия. [online] Available at: <https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%9D%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F> [Accessed 9 July 2022].
• Williamson, David, 1996. Brewer’s British Royalty. London: Cassell.

by Susan Flantzer
© Unofficial Royalty 2022

Cecilia of Normandy; Credit – WIkipedia

Cecilia of Normandy was born circa 1055 – 1056 in the Duchy of Normandy, now part of France. She was the daughter of William III, Duke of Normandy and Matilda of Flanders. In 1066, Cecilia’s father, William III, Duke of Normandy, invaded England and defeated the last Anglo-Saxon King, Harold Godwinson at the Battle of Hastings. The Duke of Normandy was then also King William I of England, known as “the Conqueror”. Cecilia’s paternal grandparents were Robert I the Magnificent, Duke of Normandy and his mistress Herleva of Falaise. His maternal grandparents were Baldwin V, Count of Flanders and Adèle of France, daughter of King Robert II of France.

Cecilia had at least nine siblings. The birth order of the boys is clear, but that of the girls is not. The list below is not in birth order. It lists Cecilia’s brothers first in their birth order and then his sisters in their probable birth order.

• Robert Curthose, Duke of Normandy (1051-1054 – 1134), married Sybil of Conversano, had one son
• Richard of Normandy (circa 1054 – circa 1070), died in a hunting accident in the New Forest
• William II Rufus, King of England (1056-1060 – 1100), unmarried, killed in the New Forest
• Henry I, King of England (1068 – 1135), married (1) Matilda of Scotland, had one son and one daughter (2) Adeliza of Louvain, no children
• Agatha of Normandy died before 1074, unmarried
• Adeliza of Normandy (circa 1055 – before 1113), probably a nun at the Abbey of St Léger in Préaux, Duchy of Normandy
• Matilda of Normandy (circa 1061 – circa 1086)
• Constance of Normandy (1057-1061 – 1090, married Alan IV, Duke of Brittany, no issue
• Adela of Normandy (circa 1067 – 1137), married Stephen II, Count of Blois, had ten children including King Stephen of England

The Abbey of the Holy Trinity as it looked in 1702 before parts of it were demolished and rebuilt and other parts restored; Credit – Wikipedia

The marriage of Cecilia’s parents occurred without the required papal dispensation as William and Matilda were regarded within the prohibited degree of kinship. Finally, in 1059 papal approval was received, but as a penance, William and Matilda were each required to found an abbey in Caen, Duchy of Normandy as penance, William founded the Abbey of St. Stephen (also called the Abbaye-aux-Hommes, Abbey of the Men), and Matilda founded the Abbey of the Holy Trinity (also called the Abbaye-aux-Dames, Abbey of the Women). In early childhood, Cecilia was promised as a nun to the abbey her mother founded.

Before Cecilia entered the abbey, she was educated by the scholar Arnulf of Chocques who taught her Latin, rhetoric, and logic. Cecilia accompanied her mother to England in 1068 and returned to Normandy in 1074 when she entered the Abbey of the Holy Trinity as a novice. On Easter Day, April 5, 1075, Cecilia took her vows as a nun.

Tomb of Cecilia’s mother Matilda of Flanders; Credit – Wikipedia

Cecilia had a successful career at the abbey. She was likely the only child to be present at her mother’s funeral in 1083. The funeral took place at the Abbey of the Holy Trinity and Cecilia’s mother Matilda of Flanders was then buried under a black slab at the abbey she had founded. Cecilia was the Coadjutor of the abbey, the assistant of her relative Abbess Matilda. Upon the death in 1112 of Abbess Matilda, Cecilia became the Abbess of the Abbey of the Holy Trinity.

Cecilia died on July 30, 1126, at the Abbey of the Holy Trinity and was buried at the abbey in the choir of the nuns, on the main axis of the church, opposite the choir of the laypeople where her mother Matilda of Flanders was buried. However, Cecilia’s grave is no longer accessible. Cecilia was succeeded as Abbess by her great-niece Elizabeth of Blois, the granddaughter of Cecilia’s sister Adele who married Stephen II, Count of Blois.

This article is the intellectual property of Unofficial Royalty and is NOT TO BE COPIED, EDITED, OR POSTED IN ANY FORM ON ANOTHER WEBSITE under any circumstances. It is permissible to use a link that directs to Unofficial Royalty.

Works Cited

• En.wikipedia.org. 2022. Abbey of Sainte-Trinité, Caen – Wikipedia. [online] Available at: <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbey_of_Sainte-Trinit%C3%A9,_Caen> [Accessed 6 July 2022].
• En.wikipedia.org. 2022. Cecilia of Normandy – Wikipedia. [online] Available at: <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cecilia_of_Normandy> [Accessed 6 July 2022].
• Flantzer, Susan, 2016. Matilda of Flanders, Queen of England. [online] Unofficial Royalty. Available at: <https://www.unofficialroyalty.com/matilda-of-flanders-queen-of-england/> [Accessed 6 July 2022].
• Flantzer, Susan, 2016. King William I of England (the Conqueror). [online] Unofficial Royalty. Available at: <https://www.unofficialroyalty.com/king-william-i-of-england-the-conqueror/> [Accessed 6  July 2022].
• Fr.wikipedia.org. 2022. Cécile de Normandie — Wikipédia. [online] Available at: <https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A9cile_de_Normandie> [Accessed 6 July 2022].
• Ru.wikipedia.org. 2022. Сесилия Нормандская — Википедия. [online] Available at: <https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%9D%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F> [Accessed 6 July 2022].
• Williamson, David, 1996. Brewer’s British Royalty. London: Cassell.

by Susan Flantzer
© Unofficial Royalty 2022

Margaret of York; Credit – Wikipedia

Margaret of York was the third wife of Charles I the Bold, Duke of Burgundy. Born on May 3, 1446, at Fotheringhay Castle in Northamptonshire, England, Margaret was the sixth of the twelve children and the third of the four daughters of Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York, and Cecily Neville, both great-grandchildren of King Edward III of England, and the sister of two Kings of England, Edward IV and Richard III. Margaret’s paternal grandparents were Richard of Conisbrough, 3rd Earl of Cambridge and his first wife Anne Mortimer. Her maternal grandparents were Ralph Neville, 1st Earl of Westmorland and his second wife Joan Beaufort.

Margaret had eleven siblings:

• Anne of York (1439 – 1476), married (1) Henry Holland, 3rd Duke of Exeter, had one daughter (2) Sir Thomas St. Leger, Anne died giving birth to a daughter
• Henry of York (born and died 1441), died in infancy
• Edward IV, King of England (1442 – 1483), married Elizabeth Woodville, had ten children including the ill-fated Edward V, King of England and Elizabeth of York, wife of Henry VII, King of England
• Edmund, Earl of Rutland (1443 – 1460), unmarried, killed at the Battle of Wakefield during the Wars of the Roses
• Elizabeth of York (1444 – circa 1503), wife of John de la Pole, 2nd Duke of Suffolk, had eleven children
• William of York (born and died 1447), died in infancy
• John of York (born and died 1448), died in infancy
• George Plantagenet, Duke of Clarence (1449 – 1478), married Isabel Neville, had four children, George was executed by his brother King Edward IV
• Thomas of York (born and died circa 1450/1451), died in infancy
• Richard III, King of England (1452 – 1485), married Anne Neville, had one son Edward of Middleham, Prince of Wales who predeceased his father, Richard III was killed at the Battle of Bosworth Field
• Ursula of York (born and died 1455), died in infancy

Margaret’s father Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York, detail from the frontispiece of the illuminated manuscript Talbot Shrewsbury Book; Credit – Wikipedia

Margaret’s father Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York was the leader of the House of York during the Wars of the Roses until his death in battle in 1460. In 1399, Henry of Bolingbroke, the eldest son of John of Gaunt who was the third surviving son of King Edward III, deposed his first cousin King Richard II and assumed the throne as King Henry IV. Henry IV’s reigning house was the House of Lancaster as his father was Duke of Lancaster and Henry had assumed the title upon his father’s death. Henry IV’s eldest son King Henry V retained the throne, but he died when his only child, King Henry VI, was just nine months old. Henry VI’s right to the crown was challenged by Margaret’s father Richard, 3rd Duke of York, who could claim descent from Edward III’s second and fourth surviving sons, Lionel of Antwerp, 1st Duke of Clarence and Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York.

During the early reign of King Henry VI, Margaret’s father held several important offices and quarreled with the Lancastrians at court. In 1448, he assumed the surname Plantagenet and then assumed the leadership of the Yorkist faction in 1450. The first battle in the long dynastic struggle called the Wars of the Roses was the First Battle of St. Albans in 1455. As soon as Margaret’s brothers Edward, the future King Edward IV, known then as the Earl of March, and Edmund, Earl of Rutland were old enough, they joined their father, fighting for the Yorkist cause. Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York was killed on December 30, 1460, at the Battle of Wakefield along with his son Edmund who was only 17 years old.

Margaret’s brother King Edward IV of England; Credit – Wikipedia

Margaret’s brother Edward, Earl of March (the future King Edward IV) was now the leader of the Yorkist faction. On February 3, 1461, Edward defeated the Lancastrian army at the Battle of Mortimer’s Cross. Edward then took a bold step and declared himself King of England on March 4, 1461. His decisive victory over the Lancastrians at the Battle of Towton on March 29, 1461, cemented his status as King of England. He was crowned at Westminster Abbey on June 28, 1461. However, the former king, Henry VI, still lived and fled to Scotland.

Margaret’s husband Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy; Credit – Wikipedia

In February 1468, arrangements were made for Margaret to marry Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy after the death of his second wife Isabella of Bourbon. Margaret and Charles were half-second cousins. They were both great-grandchildren of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, the third surviving son of King Edward III but from different wives of John. The Burgundian State consisted of parts of the present-day Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France, and Germany. On June 23, 1468, Margaret left England to sail across the English Channel to the County of Flanders, part of the Burgundian State, now part of Belgium

Margaret arrived in Flanders on June 25, 1468. The following day, Margaret met Charles’s mother, Isabella of Portugal and Charles’s only child 11-year-old Mary of Burgundy (Unofficial Royalty article coming soon), the daughter of his second wife Isabella of Bourbon. Their meeting was a resounding success, and the three of them would remain close for the rest of their lives. On June 27, 1468, Margaret met Charles for the first time. They were married privately on July 3, 1468, at the home of a wealthy merchant in Damme, Flanders.

Margaret’s stepdaughter Mary, Duchess of Burgundy; Credit – Wikipedia

Margaret and Charles had no children but Margaret was the stepmother to Charles’s daughter Mary, Duchess of Burgundy:

• Mary, Duchess of Burgundy (1457 – 1482), married Maximilian, Archduke of Austria, later Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I, had three children

Mary married Maximilian, Archduke of Austria in 1477. After Mary’s death, he became Holy Roman Emperor. Mary and Maximilian had three children including Philip of Habsburg who inherited his mother’s domains following her death but predeceased his father. Philip married Juana I, Queen of Castile and León, becoming King-Consort of Castile upon her accession in 1504, and they were the parents of the Holy Roman Emperors Charles V and Ferdinand I, and the grandparents of Felipe II, King of Spain.
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Meanwhile, in England, Henry VI returned from Scotland in 1464 and took part in an ineffective uprising. In 1465, Henry was captured and taken to the Tower of London. King Edward IV had a falling out with his major supporters, his brother George, Duke of Clarence and his first cousin Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick, known as the Kingmaker. Henry VI’s wife Margaret of Anjou, Clarence, and Warwick formed an alliance at the urging of King Louis XI of France. Edward IV was forced into exile, and Henry VI was restored to the throne on October 30, 1470. Edward and his brother Richard, Duke of Gloucester (later King Richard III) fled to Burgundy where they knew they would be welcomed by their sister Margaret and her husband Charles the Bold. Charles provided funds and troops to Edward to enable him to launch an invasion of England in 1471. Edward returned to England in early 1471 and defeated the Lancastrians at the Battle of Barnet. The final decisive Yorkist victory was at the Battle of Tewkesbury on May 4, 1471, where Henry VI’s child Edward of Westminster, Prince of Wales was killed. Henry VI was returned to the Tower of London and died on May 21, 1471, probably murdered on orders from Edward IV. Edward IV remained King of England until his death in 1483, a few weeks before his 41st birthday.

The Burgundian State during the reign of Charles the Bold; Credit – By Marco Zanoli, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=3977827

Charles the Bold’s main objective was to become a king by acquiring territories bordering and in between the territories of the Burgundian State. This caused the Burgundian Wars (1474 – 1477). The war ended when Charles was killed at the Battle of Nancy in 1477. He was interred at the Church of Our Lady in Bruges in Flanders, now in Belgium.

Tomb of Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy; Photo Credit – © Susan Flantzer

The Duchy of Burgundy and several other Burgundian lands then became part of France, and the Burgundian Netherlands and Franche-Comté were inherited by Charles’s daughter Mary, who was now the reigning Duchess of Burgundy. Mary’s lands eventually passed to the House of Habsburg upon her death because of her marriage to Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor. After the death of Charles the Bold, Margaret proved to be invaluable to Burgundy. Regarded as skillful and intelligent, Margaret provided guidance and advice to her stepdaughter Mary, using her own experiences in the court of her brother King Edward IV of England.

Tomb of Mary, Duchess of Burgundy; Photo Credit – © Susan Flantzer

In 1482, five years after the death of her husband in battle, Margaret was dealt another devastating blow. Despite being pregnant, Mary participated in a hunt in the woods near Wijnendale Castle in Flanders. She was an experienced rider and she held her falcon in one hand and the reins in the other hand. However, Mary’s horse stumbled over a tree stump while jumping over a newly dug canal. The saddle belt under the horse’s belly broke causing Mary to fall out of the saddle and into the canal with the horse on top of her. Mary was seriously injured and was transported to Prinsenhof, her palace in Bruges, where she died, aged twenty-five, several weeks later from internal injuries. Mary was buried next to her father in the Church of Our Lady in Bruges in Flanders, now in Belgium.

Mary’s brother King Richard III of England; Credit – Wikipedia

Margaret suffered more personal tragedies. Her brother George, Duke of Clarence was found guilty of plotting against his brother King Edward IV, imprisoned in the Tower of London, and privately executed on February 18, 1478. Edward IV died on April 9, 1483, a few weeks before his 41st birthday. His cause of death is not known for certain. King Edward IV was very briefly succeeded by his 12-year-old son as King Edward V (Unofficial Royalty article coming soon) until he and his brother Richard, Duke of York (Unofficial Royalty article coming soon) were declared illegitimate by an Act of Parliament and their uncle Richard, Duke of Gloucester crowned King Richard III. Margaret’s nephews Edward V and his brother Richard were the Princes in the Tower, whose fate remains unknown. Margaret’s brother King Richard III lost his life and his crown at the Battle of Bosworth Field on August 22, 1485. On that day, Henry Tudor, the Lancastrian faction leader, became the first monarch of the House of Tudor, King Henry VII. Margaret’s niece Elizabeth of York, Edward IV’s daughter, married King Henry VII in 1486, and they were the parents of King Henry VIII.

Margaret was a strong supporter of anyone willing to challenge King Henry VII. She backed both Lambert Simnel, who claimed to be first Richard, Duke of York, (son of Margaret’s brother King Edward IV, one of the Princes in the Tower), and then Edward Plantagenet, 17th Earl of Warwick (son of Margaret’s brother George, Duke of Clarence, executed for treason in 1499 – Unofficial Royalty article coming soon) and Perkin Warbeck, who claimed to be Richard, Duke of York. King Henry VII found Margaret problematic but there was little he could do since she was protected by her step-son-in-law Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor. Lambert Simnel became the figurehead of a Yorkist uprising that was crushed in 1487. He was pardoned because of his young age and was thereafter employed by the royal household. Margaret acknowledged Perkin Warbeck as her nephew and offered financial backing to support Warbeck’s attempt to take the throne, hiring mercenaries to accompany him on an expedition to England in 1495. Warbeck made several landings in England but met strong resistance and surrendered in 1497. After his capture, Warbeck was imprisoned in the Tower of London and executed in 1499.

Margaret remained an influential matriarch in the family and devoted the last years of her life to the grandchildren and great-grandchildren of her husband Charles the Bold. In 1500, she became the godmother of Charles V, the future Holy Roman Emperor, King of Spain, Archduke of Austria, Lord of the Netherlands, Duke of Burgundy, and the grandson of Mary, Duchess of Burgundy and Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor.

Mechelen Palace where Margaret spent much of her widowhood, and died; Credit – By Ad Meskens – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=12476932

Margaret survived her husband Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy by twenty-six years, dying on November 23, 1503, at the age of 57, at her main residence during her widowhood, Mechelen Palace, in Mechelen, then in the County of Flanders, part of the Burgundian State, now in Belgium. In her will, Margaret asked to be buried in the Church of the Cordeliers, the church of the Franciscan or Grey Friars in Mechelen. Part of this church survives as part of the Mechelen Cultural Centre but Margaret’s tomb was destroyed at the end of the 16th century.

Margaret is the major character in the 2008 novel A Daughter of York by Anne Easter Smith, where this writer was first introduced to her. The book begins in 1460 with fourteen-year-old Margaret mourning the death at the Battle of Wakefield of her father and brother, Richard, 3rd Duke of York and Edmund, Earl of Rutland, and continues through her marriage and the aftermath of her husband’s death.

This article is the intellectual property of Unofficial Royalty and is NOT TO BE COPIED, EDITED, OR POSTED IN ANY FORM ON ANOTHER WEBSITE under any circumstances. It is permissible to use a link that directs to Unofficial Royalty.

Works Cited

• De Win, Paul, 2005. Danse Macabre Around the Tomb and Bones of Margaret of York. [online] The Ricardian. Available at: <http://www.thericardian.online/> [Accessed 28 August 2022].
• En.wikipedia.org. 2022. Charles the Bold – Wikipedia. [online] Available at: <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_the_Bold> [Accessed 28 August 2022].
• En.wikipedia.org. 2022. Margaret of York – Wikipedia. [online] Available at: <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_of_York> [Accessed 28 August 2022].
• Flantzer, Susan, 2022. Cecily Neville, Duchess of York. [online] Unofficial Royalty. Available at: <https://www.unofficialroyalty.com/cecily-neville-duchess-of-york/> [Accessed 28 August 2022].
• Flantzer, Susan, 2016. King Edward IV of England. [online] Unofficial Royalty. Available at: <https://www.unofficialroyalty.com/king-edward-iv-of-england/> [Accessed 28 August 2022].
• Flantzer, Susan, 2022. Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York. [online] Unofficial Royalty. Available at: <https://www.unofficialroyalty.com/richard-plantagenet-3rd-duke-of-york/> [Accessed 28 August 2022].
• Jones, Dan, 2012. The Plantagenets. New York: Viking.
• Weir, Alison, 1995. The Wars of the Roses. New York: Ballantine Books.
• Williamson, David, 1996. Brewer’s British Royalty. London: Cassell.

by Susan Flantzer
© Unofficial Royalty 2022

Portrait of Richard of Normandy in a 14th-century family tree of the Kings of England: Credit – Wikipedia

Like his younger brother King William II Rufus of England and his nephew Richard, the illegitimate son of his brother Robert Curthose, Duke of Normandy, Richard of Normandy was killed in a hunting accident in the New Forest near Winchester Castle in England. Richard was the second of the four sons of William I (the Conqueror), King of England and Matilda of Flanders. He was born circa 1054 in the Duchy of Normandy, now in France. Richard’s paternal grandparents were Robert I the Magnificent, Duke of Normandy and his mistress Herleva of Falaise. His maternal grandparents were Baldwin V, Count of Flanders and Adèle of France, daughter of King Robert II of France.

Richard’s elder brother Robert Curthose; Credit – Wikipedia

Richard had at least nine siblings. The birth order of the boys is clear, but that of the girls is not. The list below is not in birth order. It lists Richard’s brothers first in their birth order and then his sisters in their probable birth order.

• Robert Curthose, Duke of Normandy (1051-1054 – 1134), married Sybil of Conversano, had one son
• William II Rufus, King of England (1056-1060 – 1100), unmarried, killed in the New Forest
• Henry I, King of England (1068 – 1135), married (1) Edith of Scotland, had one son and one daughter (2) Adeliza of Louvain, no children
• Agatha of Normandy died before 1074, unmarried
• Adeliza of Normandy (circa 1055 – before 1113), probably a nun at the Abbey of St Léger in Préaux, Duchy of Normandy
• Cecilia of Normandy (circa 1056 – 1127), Abbess of Holy Trinity in Caen
• Matilda of Normandy (circa 1061 – c. 1086)
• Constance of Normandy (1057-1061 – 1090, married Alan IV, Duke of Brittany, no issue
• Adela of Normandy (circa 1067 – 1137), married Stephen II, Count of Blois, had ten children including King Stephen of England

In 1066, Richard’s father, William III, Duke of Normandy, invaded England and defeated the last Anglo-Saxon King, Harold Godwinson at the Battle of Hastings. The Duke of Normandy was now also King William I of England. Richard’s elder brother Robert Curthose had been designated as their father’s successor in 1063. In their chronicles, both William of Malmesbury and Matthew Paris indicated that Richard had a promising future.

The New Forest; Credit – By Jim Champion, CC BY-SA 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=13444789

Sometime between 1069 and 1075, Richard died suddenly during a hunt in the New Forest, close to Winchester Castle. Chroniclers of the time offered several causes of his death including divine retribution and contracting an illness caused by infected air. The most plausible cause, written in the chronicles of Matthew Paris, William of Jumièges, and Orderic Vital, is that Richard received fatal injuries while he was chasing prey and was crushed between a low-hanging solid tree branch and the pommel of his saddle. Richard was buried at Winchester Cathedral in England.

Richard’s brother Willliam Rufus; Credit – Wikipedia

After the sudden death of his second son, the political projects of William I, King of England, who was also the Duke of Normandy, were disrupted. William I had likely intended to give his deceased second son Richard either the Duchy of Normandy or the Kingdom of England. It appears that William I’s third son William Rufus had been destined for a career in the Roman Catholic Church. Instead, William Rufus, who had moved to be the second surviving son, was called to his father’s court to prepare him for a different future.

Ironically, Richard’s father King William I died in 1087 after his horse stumbled and he was violently flung against his saddle pommel. He received serious internal injuries, most likely a ruptured bladder. As he knew he was dying, William I composed a letter to Lanfranc, Archbishop of Canterbury stating that the Duchy of Normandy should go to his eldest son Robert Curthose, the Kingdom of England should go to his second son William Rufus, and his youngest son Henry should receive money. The youngest son later became King Henry I of England and would have his own succession issues.

This article is the intellectual property of Unofficial Royalty and is NOT TO BE COPIED, EDITED, OR POSTED IN ANY FORM ON ANOTHER WEBSITE under any circumstances. It is permissible to use a link that directs to Unofficial Royalty.

Works Cited

• En.wikipedia.org. 2022. Richard (son of William the Conqueror) – Wikipedia. [online] Available at: <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard,_son_of_William_the_Conqueror> [Accessed 2 July 2022].
• Flantzer, Susan, 2016. King William I of England (the Conqueror). [online] Unofficial Royalty. Available at: <https://www.unofficialroyalty.com/king-william-i-of-england-the-conqueror/> [Accessed 2 July 2022].
• Fr.wikipedia.org. 2022. Richard de Normandie (fils de Guillaume le Conquérant) — Wikipédia. [online] Available at: <https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_de_Normandie_(fils_de_Guillaume_le_Conqu%C3%A9rant)> [Accessed 2 July 2022].
• Ru.wikipedia.org. 2022. Ричард Нормандский — Википедия. [online] Available at: <https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4_%D0%9D%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9> [Accessed 2 July 2022].
• Williamson, David, 1996. Brewer’s British Royalty. London: Cassell.