by Scott Mehl and Susan Flantzer © Unofficial Royalty 2015

Destined to become the longest-reigning British monarch, Princess Elizabeth of York was born at 2:40 am on April 21, 1926, at 17 Bruton Street in Mayfair, London, the home of her maternal grandparents. She was the daughter of the future King George VI and Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon, at the time the Duke and Duchess of York. She was named in honor of her mother, her great-grandmother Queen Alexandra, who had died five months earlier, on November 20, 1925, and her grandmother Queen Mary. Her paternal grandparents were King George V and Queen Mary, born Princess Victoria Mary of Teck, and her maternal grandparents were Claude Bowes-Lyon, 14th and 1st Earl of Strathmore and Kinghorne, and Cecilia Cavendish-Bentinck. At the time of her birth, Elizabeth was third in the line of succession to the British throne, following her uncle The Prince of Wales (later King Edward VIII and Duke of Windsor) and her father.

Queen Elizabeth II Resources 

• Unofficial Royalty: Ancestors of Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom
• Unofficial Royalty: Contemporary Monarchs of Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom
• Unofficial Royalty: Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II
• Unofficial Royalty: First Cousins of Queen Elizabeth II
• Unofficial Royalty: Margaret “Bobo” MacDonald, nanny, dresser, and confidante
• Unofficial Royalty: Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom
• Unofficial Royalty: Wedding of Queen Elizabeth II and Lt Philip Mountbatten, RN

On May 29, 1926, in the Private Chapel at Buckingham Palace in London, England, Princess Elizabeth of York was christened.

Her godparents were:

• King George V (her paternal grandfather)
• Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught (Queen Victoria’s son, her father’s great-uncle)
• Claude Bowes-Lyon, 14th and 1st Earl of Strathmore and Kinghorne (her maternal grandfather)
• Queen Mary (her paternal grandmother)
• Princess Mary, Viscountess Lascelles (her paternal aunt, later Princess Royal, Countess of Harewood)
• Lady Elphinstone (her maternal aunt, born Lady Mary Bowes-Lyon)

For the first few years of her life, Elizabeth was raised at her parents’ home at 145 Piccadilly, in London, and at White Lodge in Richmond Park.

Elizabeth had one younger sibling:

• Princess Margaret (1930 – 2002), married and divorced Antony Armstrong-Jones, created 1st Earl of Snowdon, had one son and one daughter

In 1930, after the birth of Princess Margaret, the family moved to Royal Lodge in Windsor Great Park. Royal Lodge is most associated with her mother, as it was her country home until she died in 2002. It is now the home of Prince Andrew, The Duke of York.

In January 1936, Elizabeth’s grandfather, King George V, died at Sandringham. Her uncle David became King Edward VIII, and her father was now heir-presumptive to the throne. Even then, it was expected that the King would marry and have an heir – but as history shows us, this was not how things would turn out. In December 1936, King Edward VIII abdicated the throne, and Elizabeth’s father became King George VI. The quiet family life the Yorks had enjoyed would be changed forever. The young 10-year-old princess was now the heiress-presumptive to the British throne. However, because there was always the possibility of a younger brother being born and becoming heir apparent, Elizabeth did not receive any of the titles traditionally held by the heir. She remained, simply, The Princess Elizabeth.

King George VI’s coronation was held in 1937 (on the date originally scheduled for his elder brother, Edward VIII). Princess Elizabeth and her sister, Princess Margaret, attended the ceremony, resplendent in ermine robes and small gold coronets.

The two princesses often attended events with their parents. One that would be most notable in Elizabeth’s life was a visit to the Royal Naval College in Dartmouth in 1939. Here she met and spent time with, her second cousin once removed via King Christian X of Denmark and her third cousin via Queen Victoria, Prince Philip of Greece and Denmark. Philip was the son of Prince Andrew of Greece and Princess Alice of Battenberg. Philip was a cadet at the College, and because of his family relationship, was asked to join the official party to entertain the young princesses. The two had already met some years earlier at the wedding of Elizabeth’s uncle, The Duke of Kent, to Philip’s cousin, Princess Marina of Greece but it was in Dartmouth that the 13-year-old Elizabeth truly took notice of her nearly 18-year-old cousin. It is said that Elizabeth was instantly smitten with the dashing Philip and the two began a correspondence that quickly blossomed into a romance.

Princess Elizabeth undertook her first official public engagement on her 16th birthday – an inspection of the Grenadier Guards, of whom she had been appointed Colonel-in-Chief. From this point on, her public role increased and she took on more official engagements, both with her parents and on her own. In 1945, she joined the Women’s Auxiliary Territorial Service with the rank of Subaltern, where she trained as a driver and mechanic. She was later promoted to the rank of Junior Commander.

Unbeknownst to the British people, Philip and Elizabeth had become engaged privately in 1946. The King consented, with the condition that the announcement would be held off until after Elizabeth’s 21st birthday the following year. The family was on a tour of southern Africa when Elizabeth turned 21. On that day, the Princess gave a radio address from Cape Town, South Africa, in which she dedicated her life to the service of the Commonwealth:

“I declare before you all that my whole life, whether it be long or short, shall be devoted
to your service and the service of our great imperial family to which we all belong.”

(You can hear the entire speech HERE.)

Upon the family’s return home, the engagement of The Princess Elizabeth and Lt Philip Mountbatten was announced on July 10, 1947. The couple married four months later, on November 20, 1947, at Westminster Abbey. Just prior, the King issued Letters Patent granting Philip the style of His Royal Highness, and the titles Duke of Edinburgh, Earl of Merioneth, and Baron Greenwich. In addition, he was made a Knight of the Order of the Garter.

• Unofficial Royalty: Wedding of Queen Elizabeth II and Lt Philip Mountbatten, RN

Following their honeymoon, spent at Broadlands (the Mountbatten estate in Hampshire) and Birkhall on the Balmoral Estate, the couple took up residence at Windlesham Moor, a country home in Surrey that was leased for them. They remained at Windlesham Moor until July 1949 when they moved into Clarence House in London. Elizabeth and Philip had four children, two born before she became Queen and two born after she became Queen.

• King Charles III of the United Kingdom (born 1948), married  (1) Lady Diana Spencer, daughter of John Spencer, 8th Earl Spencer, had two sons, divorced  (2) Camilla Shand Parker-Bowles, no children
  • Prince William, The Prince of Wales (born 1982), married Catherine Middleton, had two sons and one daughter
  • Prince Harry, The Duke of Sussex (born 1984), married Meghan Markle, had one son and one daughter
• Princess Anne, The Princess Royal (born 1950), married (1) Mark Philipps, had one son and one daughter, divorced  (2) Timothy Laurence, no children
  • Peter Phillips (born 1977), married Autumn Kelly, had two daughters, divorced
  • Zara Phillips (born 1981), married Mike Tindall, had two daughters and one son
• Prince Andrew, The Duke of York (born 1960), married Sarah Ferguson, had two daughters, divorced
  • Princess Beatrice, Mrs. Edoardo Mapelli Mozzi (born 1988), married Edoardo Mapelli Mozzi, had one daughter
  • Princess Eugenie, Mrs. Jack Brooksbank (born 1990), married Jack Brooksbank, had two sons
• Prince Edward, The Duke of Edinburgh (born 1964), married Sophie Rhys-Jones, had one daughter and one son
  • Lady Louise Mountbatten-Windsor (born 2003)
  • James Mountbatten-Windsor, Earl of Wessex (born 2007)

In late January 1952, Elizabeth and Philip embarked on a tour of Australia and New Zealand on behalf of her father, whose doctors would not allow him to travel. On February 6, 1952,  King George VI passed away at Sandringham. The new Queen learned of his death at the Sagana Lodge in Kenya, where the royal party was staying en route to Australia. They immediately returned to London, where she made her Accession Declaration to the Privy Council on February 8, 1952.

On June 2, 1953, the Queen’s coronation was held at Westminster Abbey. This was the first British Coronation that had been televised although some parts were deemed too sacred to be seen. In November 1952, the Queen and Duke of Edinburgh embarked on a six-month tour of the Commonwealth, ending in Malta. Here, the couple was joined by their children, Prince Charles and Princess Anne, and the family returned to London on the newly fitted HMY Britannia.

During her reign, Queen Elizabeth II was perhaps the most recognizable person in the world. She made numerous foreign visits, including State Visits, and hosted numerous incoming State Visits, all in her role as Head of State. She also made numerous visits to Commonwealth countries in her role as Head of the Commonwealth.

In 2012, she celebrated her Diamond Jubilee. Queen Elizabeth joined her great-great-grandmother, Queen Victoria, as the only two British monarchs to reach 60 years on the throne. Several days of celebrations were held, including a grand regatta on the Thames, a concert in front of Buckingham Palace, and a Service of Thanksgiving at Westminster Abbey. It was celebrated not only in the United Kingdom but around the world. Members of the Royal Family traveled to all of the Commonwealth Realms and many other Commonwealth countries on her behalf while Queen Elizabeth II and the Duke of Edinburgh traveled throughout the United Kingdom.

On July 27, 2012, Queen Elizabeth II officially opened the Olympic Games in London. Breaking with tradition, Her Majesty appeared in a short film that began the Opening Ceremonies. Seated at her desk in Buckingham Palace, she is joined by James Bond (played by Daniel Craig), and the two leave for the stadium, where they arrive by parachute! Needless to say, the crowd was overjoyed, and Queen Elizabeth was greeted by the cheers and applause of everyone in attendance. The following year, she was presented with an honorary BAFTA award for her support of the British film industry. The presenter referred to her as “the most memorable Bond girl yet”. I think all of us would agree. You can watch Queen Elizabeth II’s Olympic entrance HERE.

 

On April 9, 2021, Queen Elizabeth’s husband of seventy-three years, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh died at Windsor Castle in Windsor, England, at the age of 99, just two months short of his 100th birthday. The funeral arrangements were planned over the years, with Prince Philip’s involvement and Queen Elizabeth signed off on the funeral plans. Last-minute changes were necessary to ensure compliance with COVID-19 restrictions, including only thirty guests being allowed at the funeral. One of the most poignant images of the funeral was the nearly 95-year-old Queen Elizabeth II, now a widow, sitting alone in a choir stall at St. George’s Chapel, Windsor.

In 2022, Queen Elizabeth II celebrated her Platinum Jubilee, marking seventy years on the throne. There were celebrations throughout the United Kingdom and the Commonwealth nations. See Unofficial Royalty: Queen Elizabeth II’s Platinum Jubilee Weekend.

On September 6, 2022, at Balmoral Castle in Scotland, Queen Elizabeth II had a meeting with the outgoing Prime Minister Boris Johnson, and then had a meeting with the incoming Prime Minister Liz Truss. On the evening of September 7, 2022, Queen Elizabeth was to be at a virtual Privy Council meeting during which Liz Truss would have taken her oath as First Lord of the Treasury (a position the Prime Minister also holds) and her new cabinet ministers would have been sworn into their roles. However, this statement was released: “After a full day yesterday, Her Majesty has this afternoon accepted doctors’ advice to rest. This means that the Privy Council meeting that had been due to take place this evening will be rearranged.”

On September 8, 2022, Buckingham Palace issued this statement: “Following further evaluation this morning, the Queen’s doctors are concerned for Her Majesty’s health and have recommended she remain under medical supervision. The Queen remains comfortable and at Balmoral.”  All of Queen Elizabeth’s children and her grandsons Prince William and Prince Harry traveled to Balmoral.

Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom died at the age of 96, at Balmoral Castle, her home in Balmoral, Scotland, on September 8, 2022, at 3:10 PM, more than three hours before the public was informed. The death certificate, released by the National Records of Scotland cites that she died of “old age”. The informant of her death was The Princess Royal, Queen Elizabeth II’s daughter Princess Anne.  Only The Princess Royal and King Charles III were with Queen Elizabeth II when she died.

After a state funeral at Westminster Abbey in London, England on September 19, 2022, Queen Elizabeth II was interred in the King George VI Memorial Chapel in St. George’s Chapel at Windsor Castle in Windsor England, where her parents and her sister had been interred. At the time of Queen Elizabeth II’s burial, the coffin of her husband Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, who died in 2021, was moved from the Royal Vault at St. George’s Chapel to the King George VI Memorial Chapel.

• Unofficial Royalty: The Death and Funeral of Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom

Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom is the longest-reigning British monarch having surpassed her great-great-grandmother Queen Victoria on September 9, 2015. In May 2022, Queen Elizabeth II surpassed Prince Johann II of Liechtenstein (reigned from November 12, 1858 to  February 11, 1929, for 25,658 days or 70 years, 91 days) and then in June 2022, she surpassed King Bhumibol Adulyadej of Thailand (reigned June 9, 1946 to October 13, 2016, for 25,694 days or 70 years, 126 days) to become the second longest-reigning monarch. Queen Elizabeth II reigned from February 6, 1952 – September 8, 2022, 70 years, 214 days. Only King Louis XIV of France, (reigned May 14, 1643 to September 1, 1715, for 26,407 days or 72 years, 110 days) has reigned longer. (Note: Lengths of reign are from a list of monarchs of states that were internationally sovereign for most or all of their reigns and have verifiable reigns by an exact date.)

• Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom – Seventy Years of the Throne

Many monarchs came and went during the long reign of Queen Elizabeth II. See who they were at:

• Unofficial Royalty: Contemporary Monarchs of Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom

There were fifteen Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom during the reign of Queen Elizabeth II:

• Sir Winston Churchill 1951 – 1955
• Sir Anthony Eden 1955 – 1957
• Harold Macmillan 1957 – 1963
• Sir Alec Douglas-Home 1963 – 1964
• Harold Wilson 1964 – 70 and 1974 – 1976
• Edward Heath 1970 – 1974
• James Callaghan 1976 – 1979
• Margaret Thatcher 1979 – 1990
• John Major 1990 – 1997
• Tony Blair 1997 – 2007
• Gordon Brown 2007 – 2010
• David Cameron 2010 – 2016
• Theresa May 2016 – 2019
• Boris Johnson 2019 – 2022
• Liz Truss 2022 (became Prime Minister two days before Queen Elizabeth II’s death)

• A Short Guide to The Parliament of the United Kingdom

This article is the intellectual property of Unofficial Royalty and is NOT TO BE COPIED, EDITED, OR POSTED IN ANY FORM ON ANOTHER WEBSITE under any circumstances. It is permissible to use a link that directs to Unofficial Royalty.

House of Windsor Resources at Unofficial Royalty

• United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland Index
• House of Windsor Index
• Birth of the House of Windsor
• British Royal Weddings
• Children, Grandchildren, Great-Grandchildren, and Great-Great-Grandchildren of King George V
• Coronations after the Norman Conquest (1066 – present)
• First Cousins of Queen Elizabeth II
• History and Traditions: Windsor Weddings Part 1 – Children of King George V
• History and Traditions: Windsor Weddings Part 2 – Later Windsor Weddings
• House of Windsor Christenings
• House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha and House of Windsor Burial Sites
• Line of Succession to the British Throne
• Royal Churches: United Kingdom
• Windsor Weddings Part 1 – Children of King George V
• Windsor Weddings Part 2 – Later Windsor Weddings
• When The British Monarch Dies

by Susan Flantzer  © Unofficial Royalty 2015

Queen Victoria came to the British throne because of a great tragedy that struck the British Royal Family on November 6, 1817. Twenty-one-year-old Princess Charlotte of Wales, the only child of George, Prince of Wales (the future King George IV), died after delivering a stillborn son. At the time of her death, Charlotte, who was second in line to the throne, was the only legitimate grandchild of King George III, even though twelve of his fifteen children were still alive.  If Charlotte had survived her grandfather King George III and her father, the future King George IV, she would have become Queen. Her death left no legitimate heir in the second generation and prompted the aging sons of King George III to begin a frantic search for brides to provide for the succession.

King George III’s eldest son (Charlotte’s father, the future King George IV) and his second son Frederick, Duke of York, were in loveless marriages, and their wives, both in their late forties, were not expected to produce heirs. The third son, William, Duke of Clarence (the future King William IV), age 53, married 26-year-old Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen, while the fourth son, 50-year-old Edward, Duke of Kent, married 32-year-old widow Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saafeld.  Victoria was the sister of Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Saafeld (the future King Leopold I of the Belgians), Princess Charlotte’s widower. Twenty-one-year-old Augusta of Hesse-Cassel married 44-year-old Adolphus, Duke of Cambridge, the seventh son. It was then the scramble to produce an heir began.

Within a short time, the three new duchesses, along with Frederica, wife of the fifth son, Ernest, Duke of Cumberland, became pregnant. Augusta, Duchess of Cambridge gave birth to a son on March 26, 1819, and Adelaide, Duchess of Clarence had a daughter the following day. Victoria, Duchess of Kent produced a daughter on May 24, 1819, and three days later Frederica, Duchess of Cumberland had a boy. Adelaide’s daughter would have been the heir, but she died in infancy as did another daughter born the following year. The child of the next Royal Duke in seniority stood to inherit the throne. This was Alexandrina Victoria, daughter of Edward, Duke of Kent and Victoria. The baby was fifth in line to the throne after her father’s three elder brothers George, Frederick, and William, and her father Edward.

The baby’s father, Edward, died on January 23, 1820, eight months after her birth, and the infant princess was fourth in the line of succession. Six days later, King George III’s death brought his eldest son to the throne as George IV. Frederick, Duke of York, died in 1827, bringing the young princess a step closer to the throne. George IV died in 1830 and his brother William (IV) succeeded him. During William’s reign, little Drina, as she was called, was the heiress presumptive. There was always the possibility that King William IV and Queen Adelaide would still produce an heir, but it was not to be.  King William IV died on June 20, 1837, and left the throne to his 18-year-old niece, who is known to history as Queen Victoria.

Queen Victoria was born at Kensington Palace in London, England on May 24, 1819. She was the only child of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. This was the second marriage for Victoria’s mother who was previously married to Emich Carl, 2nd Prince of Leiningen and was widowed after 13 years of marriage. This marriage produced a half-brother and half-sister for Victoria:

• Karl, 3rd Prince of Leiningen (1804 – 1856), married Countess Maria Klebelsberg, had two sons
• Princess Feodora of Leiningen (1807 – 1872), married Ernst I, Prince of Hohenlohe-Langenburg, had three sons and three daughters; Feodora’s granddaughter Princess Augusta Viktoria of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg married Queen Victoria’s grandson Wilhelm II, German Emperor and King of Prussia

Because Karl became the sovereign Prince of Leiningen at the age of ten, he lived in Leiningen (now in Germany), but Feodora lived in England with her mother and half-sister Victoria until her marriage in 1828. Victoria and Feodora had a close relationship and maintained a lifelong correspondence.

Victoria was christened a month after her birth at Kensington Palace, and was given the names Alexandrina (after Alexander I, Emperor of All Russia, one of her godparents) and Victoria (after her mother). Efforts by her parents to use the names Georgina or Georgiana, Charlotte, and Augusta were thwarted by the Prince Regent (later King George IV). Her godparents were:

• Alexander I, Emperor of All Russia
• The Prince Regent (her paternal uncle, later King George IV)
• Dowager Queen of Württemberg (her maternal aunt Charlotte, Princess Royal)
• Dowager Duchess of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (her maternal grandmother, born Augusta Reuss of Ebersdorf)

On January 23, 1820, Victoria’s father died of pneumonia six days before his father King George III died and less than a year after his daughter’s birth. After King George III’s death, the infant Victoria was third in the line of succession after her uncles, Frederick, Duke of York and William, Duke of Clarence. Neither the new king, George IV, nor his brothers Frederick and William had any legitimate heirs, and the Duchess of Kent decided she would take a chance on Victoria’s accession to the throne. The Duchess decided to stay in England rather than return to her homeland.

The Duchess of Kent and her daughter Victoria were given little financial support from Parliament. The Duchess’ brother Leopold (the future King Leopold I of the Belgians) was the widower of Princess Charlotte and received a very generous 50,000 pounds per year income from Parliament upon his marriage to Charlotte which was continued after her death. Leopold provided much-needed financial and emotional support to his sister and niece. In 1831, with King George IV dead for a year and his younger brother and heir King William IV still without legitimate issue, Victoria’s status as heir presumptive and her mother’s prospective place as regent led to major increases in income. Uncle Leopold became King of the Belgians in 1831, so an additional consideration was the impropriety of a foreign monarch supporting the heir to the British throne. Leopold had surrendered his British income upon his accession to the Belgian throne.

There was no love lost between King William IV and his sister-in-law, the Duchess of Kent. Despite the Regency Act 1830 making the Duchess of Kent regent in case William died while Victoria was still a minor, the King distrusted the duchess’s capacity to be regent. In 1836 King William IV declared during a dinner in the Duchess’ presence that he wanted to live until Victoria’s 18th birthday so that a regency could be avoided.

Victoria’s governess was Louise Lehzen, born to a Lutheran pastor in Hanover, Germany. Lehzen, as she was called, gave Victoria a very solid early education. When Victoria turned eight, she began to receive lessons from tutors in French, German, writing, mathematics, drawing, dancing, music, and singing. Shortly before, Victoria’s uncle William became king, Lehzen inserted a genealogical table in Victoria’s history book. Victoria carefully looked at it and said, “I see I am nearer to the throne than I thought,” and burst into tears. After she composed herself, Victoria said her famous remark, “I will be good.”

Lehzen was strongly protective of Victoria, who resided in a household dominated by the controlling Kensington System, implemented by the Duchess of Kent and her comptroller Sir John Conroy. Lehzen encouraged Victoria to become strong, informed, and independent from her mother’s and Conroy’s influence, causing friction between the two and Lehzen. Lehzen remained with Victoria until 1841 when she was quietly dismissed after Prince Albert, Victoria’s husband, had had enough of her jealousy and troublemaking. Lehzen was pensioned off to Hanover although Victoria and her former governess continued to correspond with each other.

On May 24, 1837, Victoria turned 18 years old and it would not be necessary for the Duchess of Kent to serve as regent, much to the relief of Victoria’s uncle King William IV. Less than a month later, on June 20, 1837, King William IV died and Victoria acceded to the British throne. On the day Victoria became queen, she demonstrated her determination to free herself from her mother’s influence by ordering her bed removed from the room she and her mother had always shared. Victoria’s coronation took place on June 28, 1838, at Westminster Abbey.

 

Even before Victoria became queen, the question of her eventual marriage had been discussed. Since 1836, Uncle Leopold had hoped to arrange a marriage between Victoria and his nephew (and Victoria’s first cousin) Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Leopold, Victoria’s mother, and Albert’s father Ernst I, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha were all siblings. Victoria’s paternal uncle, King William IV, disapproved of a Coburg match and favored a marriage with Prince Alexander of the Netherlands, the second son of the future King Willem II of the Netherlands.

First cousins Victoria and Albert met for the first time in 1836 when Albert and his elder brother Ernst visited England. Seventeen-year-old Victoria seemed instantly infatuated with Albert. She wrote to her uncle Leopold, “How delighted I am with him, and how much I like him in every way. He possesses every quality that could be desired to make me perfectly happy.”

In October 1839, Albert and Ernst again visited England, staying at Windsor Castle with Victoria, who was now Queen. On October 15, 1839, the 20-year-old monarch summoned her cousin Albert and proposed to him. Albert accepted, but wrote to his stepmother, “My future position will have its dark sides, and the sky will not always be blue and unclouded.” The couple was married in the Chapel Royal at St. James’ Palace in London on February 10, 1840, at 1 p.m. Traditionally, royal weddings took place at night, but this wedding was held during the day so the Queen’s subjects could see the couple as they traveled down The Mall from Buckingham Palace.

• Unofficial Royalty: Wedding of Queen Victoria and Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha

 

Shortly after his marriage, Albert wrote to a friend, “I am only the husband and not the master in my house.” Albert was expected to be ready at a moment’s notice to go to his new wife to read aloud, play the piano, be petted, or blot her signature. Victoria was delighted to parade Albert before her court and, as she confided to her diary, to have him put her stockings on her feet.

During Victoria’s early pregnancies, Albert showed a talent for diplomatic dealings with her ministers and an ability to understand complex government documents. Soon Albert was dealing with more and more of Victoria’s governmental duties and they worked with their desks side by side. As Albert’s influence over Victoria grew, she began to defer to him on every issue.

Victoria was quite temperamental and had a strong sexuality which Albert apparently met, as evidenced by the birth of nine children. Albert was somewhat prudish and his high moral standards would never allow extramarital affairs. He found marriage to Victoria a full-time job which exhausted him physically and mentally. Victoria rewarded Albert by making him Prince Consort in 1857.

 

All of Victoria and Albert’s nine children grew to adulthood. However, their youngest son, Leopold, was afflicted with the genetic blood clotting disease hemophilia and two of their daughters, Alice and Beatrice, were hemophilia carriers.

• Unofficial Royalty: Hemophilia in Queen Victoria’s Family

Victoria and Albert’s nine children:

• Victoria, Princess Royal (1840-1901) married Friedrich III, German Emperor and King of Prussia, had four sons and four daughters
• King Edward VII of the United Kingdom (1841-1910) married Princess Alexandra of Denmark, had two sons and three daughters
• Princess Alice (1843-1878) married Ludwig IV, Grand Duke of Hesse and by Rhine, had two sons and five daughters
• Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (1844-1900) married Grand Duchess Marie Alexandrovna of Russia, had one son and four daughters
• Princess Helena (1846-1923) married Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein, had two sons and two daughters
• Princess Louise (1848-1939) married John Campbell, Marquess of Lorne, 9th Duke of Argyll, no children
• Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught (1850-1942) married Princess Louise Margaret of Prussia, had one son and two daughters
• Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany (1853-1884) married Princess Helena of Waldeck and Pyrmont, had one son and one daughter
• Princess Beatrice (1857-1944) married Prince Henry of Battenberg, had three sons and one daughter

Victoria and Albert’s children and grandchildren married into other European royal families giving Victoria the unofficial title of “Grandmother of Europe.” Their grandchildren sat upon the thrones of Germany/Prussia, Greece, Norway, Romania, Russia, Spain, and the United Kingdom as monarchs or consorts. Through these marriages, Victoria and Albert’s daughters and granddaughters transmitted the genetic disease hemophilia to other royal families. Victoria and Albert’s descendants currently sit upon the thrones of Denmark, Norway, Spain, Sweden, and the United Kingdom.

• Unofficial Royalty: Queen Victoria’s Children and Grandchildren
• Unofficial Royalty: Queen Victoria’s Great-Grandchildren
• Unofficial Royalty: Queen Victoria’s Great-Great-Grandchildren
• Unofficial Royalty: Bibliography of Royal Biographies: Queen Victoria and Family

Victoria and Albert, whose primary residences were Buckingham Palace and Windsor Castle, felt they needed their own residences. Albert’s architectural talents are evident in the seaside Italian-style palace Osborne House on the Isle of Wight and Balmoral, a castle in the Scottish highlands. Osborne and Balmoral became Victoria’s favorite homes.  Following Victoria’s death, Osborne was given to the state and served as a Royal Navy training college from 1903-1921.  Today it is open to the public as a home of Queen Victoria.  Balmoral Castle remains the private property of the monarch and is used by the British Royal Family for their summer holidays.

In December 1861, Albert, exhausted from dealing with a foreign policy issue and his eldest son’s affair with an actress, fell ill with a fever. Delirious and suffering from pain and chills, Albert died at Windsor Castle on December 14, 1861, at the age of 42. The cause of his death was diagnosed as typhoid fever, but modern medical experts speculate that he died from stomach cancer or some other debilitating disease.

• Unofficial Royalty: December 14 – Queen Victoria’s Dire Day

Left a widow at 42, Victoria never fully recovered from her beloved Albert’s death. For the rest of her life, she wore only clothes of mourning black with a white widow’s cap on her head. Her handkerchiefs and stationery displayed wide black edges. In each of her homes, Albert’s room was kept as if he were still alive. Servants opened and closed the curtains, changed linens, and laid out Albert’s clothes. Victoria slept with his nightshirt for years. Most notable was her almost complete withdrawal from public life for the rest of her reign. She did find some comfort in her ever-growing family of children, grandchildren, and great-grandchildren. Eventually, Victoria made trips to the south of France, where she enjoyed the Mediterranean sunshine.

During her widowhood, two servants became important to Victoria, much to the distress of her family. During her early widowhood, Victoria relied heavily on her Scottish Highland servant John Brown from Balmoral. There were rumors of a romance and a secret marriage, and Victoria was called Mrs. Brown. Brown treated the queen in a rough and familiar but kind manner, which she relished. In return, Brown was allowed many privileges which infuriated Victoria’s family.

After John Brown’s death in 1883, Queen Victoria became similarly attached to an Indian Muslim servant Abdul Karim, called the Munshi, who began working for her in 1887. The Munshi was resented even more than John Brown had been. At least John Brown’s loyalty to Queen Victoria was without question, but there was evidence that the Munshi exploited his position for personal gain and prestige. The Munshi remained with Victoria until her death when he was dismissed and sent back to India by Victoria’s son and successor King Edward VII.

On January 1, 1877, Victoria was proclaimed Empress of India. This was a great source of pride and satisfaction to Victoria because now she was on an equal status with Emperor Franz Joseph of Austria, Emperor Alexander II of Russia, and Wilhelm I, German Emperor as she considered herself greatly superior to all of them.

In 1887, Queen Victoria celebrated her Golden Jubilee marking 50 years on the throne, and ten years later she celebrated her Diamond Jubilee marking her 60th year as queen. On September 23, 1896, Victoria surpassed her grandfather King George III as the longest-reigning British monarch. On September 9, 2015, her great-great-granddaughter Queen Elizabeth II surpassed Queen Victoria as the longest-reigning British monarch.

By the time Queen Victoria was in the last year of her life, she had lost three of her nine children. Princess Alice died on December 14, 1878, the 17th anniversary of Prince Albert’s death, at the age of 35 from diphtheria. Prince Leopold, who suffered from hemophilia, died at the age of 30 on March 28, 1884, from a cerebral hemorrhage following a fall. Lastly, Prince Alfred, aged 55, died of throat cancer, on July 30, 1900. Victoria, Princess Royal was diagnosed with breast cancer in 1899 and then spine cancer in 1900. She died on August 5, 1901, less than seven months after her mother’s death. Two of Victoria’s children, Princess Louise and Prince Arthur, lived to be 91. Victoria’s youngest child Princess Beatrice outlived all her siblings. She died at the age of 87 in 1944 and the 18-year-old Princess Elizabeth, the future Queen Elizabeth II, attended her funeral.

Queen Victoria had enjoyed good health throughout her life but in the last year of her life, she suffered from indigestion, insomnia, weight loss, and some difficulty with speaking, reading, and writing. Rheumatism made it difficult to walk and cataracts made it difficult to see. On December 18, 1900, she traveled to Osborne House on the Isle of Wight for the last time. The journey exhausted her, but after a few days, she seemed somewhat recovered. However, by January 16, 1901, it was obvious that Queen Victoria’s life was drawing to an end. She died at Osborne House on January 22, 1901, surrounded by her family. Her funeral was held at St. George’s Chapel at Windsor Castle, and she was interred beside Prince Albert in the Frogmore Mausoleum in Windsor Great Park.

This article is the intellectual property of Unofficial Royalty and is NOT TO BE COPIED, EDITED, OR POSTED IN ANY FORM ON ANOTHER WEBSITE under any circumstances. It is permissible to use a link that directs to Unofficial Royalty.

House of Hanover and Queen Victoria Resources at Unofficial Royalty

• United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland Index
• House of Hanover Index
• House of Hanover: Queen Victoria Index
• Bibliography of Royal Biographies: Queen Victoria and Family
• British Royal Weddings
• Christenings of Queen Victoria, Prince Albert, Their Children, and Select Grandchildren
• Coronations after the Norman Conquest (1066 – present)
• First Cousins of Queen Victoria
• Hemophilia in Queen Victoria’s Family
• History and Traditions: Weddings of Queen Victoria and Her Children
• House of Hanover Burial Sites
• Queen Victoria’s Children and Grandchildren Articles Index
• Queen Victoria’s Great-Grandchildren
• Queen Victoria’s Great-Great-Grandchildren
• Queen Victoria’s Inner Circle Index (Household, Ladies, Prime Ministers, Private Secretaries, Relatives Articles)

by Susan Flantzer  © Unofficial Royalty 2015

King Henry III became king on October 18, 1216, at the age of nine and reigned 56 years, 29 days, until he died in 1272. Only King George III, Queen Victoria, and Queen Elizabeth II have reigned longer. Henry was born at Winchester Castle on October 1, 1207, the eldest of the five children of King John and his second wife Isabella, Countess of Angoulême in her own right. Their firstborn child was named after King John’s father, King Henry II.  Henry’s siblings all survived into adulthood, made excellent marriages, and all but Joan had children.

Henry’s siblings:

• Richard, Earl of Cornwall, King of the Romans (1209 – 1272), married (1) Isabel Marshal, had three sons and a daughter, only one son survived childhood, Isabel died in childbirth (2) Sanchia of Provence, had two sons, only one son survived childhood (3) Beatrice of Falkenburg, no children
• Joan of England (1210 – 1238), married Alexander II, King of Scots, no children
• Isabella of England (1214 – 1241), married Friedrich II, Holy Roman Emperor, had at least four children
• Eleanor of England (1215 – 1275), married (1) William Marshal, 2nd Earl of Pembroke, no children (2) Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester, had seven children

King John died on October 18, 1216, leaving Henry, a nine-year-old, to inherit his throne amid the First Barons’ War (1215–17), in which a group of rebellious barons supported by a French army, made war on King John because he refused to accept and abide by the Magna Carta. The rebellious barons and the French controlled a large part of eastern England. Henry was crowned as soon as possible to reinforce his claim to the throne. On October 28, 2016, at Gloucester Cathedral Henry was crowned with a golden circlet belonging to his mother as the coronation regalia were at Westminster in London.

William Marshal, 1st Earl of Pembroke, who had served three kings: Henry II, Richard I, and John, was named as the protector of King Henry III, and regent of the kingdom. Despite being around 70 years of age, Marshal actively participated in the war against the French and the rebel barons with amazing energy. In the Battle of Lincoln, he charged and fought at the head of the young king’s army, leading them to victory. He was preparing to besiege the French in London when the war ended with the naval victories at the Battle of Dover and the Battle of Sandwich. Upon his death in 1219, which greatly affected the young Henry, Marshal was eulogized as “best knight that ever lived” by Stephen Langton, Archbishop of Canterbury.

In July 1217, Henry’s mother Isabella of Angoulême left him in the care of his regent, William Marshal, 1st Earl of Pembroke, and returned to France to assume control of her inheritance of Angoulême, basically abandoning her children by King John. In 1220, she married Hugh X of Lusignan, Count of La Marche with whom she had nine children. Henry’s education was entrusted to Peter de Roches, Bishop of Winchester and Hubert de Burgh, 1st Earl of Kent became regent after the death of William Marshal. On May 20, 1220, Henry was crowned a second time in Westminster Abbey with a full coronation ceremony. He was declared of age in 1223 by the pope, but he did not actually reign independently until 1227 when he was 20.

On January 14, 1236, at Canterbury Cathedral, 29-year-old Henry married 13-year-old Eleanor of Provence,  the second of the four daughters of Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Provence and Beatrice of Savoy.  All four daughters married kings and therefore became queens.

Henry and Eleanor had five children:

• King Edward I of England (1239 – 1307), married (1) Eleanor of Castile, had issue including his heir Edward II (2) Margaret of France, had issue
• Margaret, Queen of Scots (1240 – 1275), married Alexander III, King of Scots, had issue
• Beatrice, Countess of Richmond (1242 – 1275), married John II, Duke of Brittany, had issue
• Edmund Crouchback, 1st Earl of Lancaster (1245–1296), married (1) Aveline de Forz, no issue (2) Blanche of Artois, had issue
• Katherine of England  (1253 – 1257), died in childhood

Many of Eleanor’s maternal Savoy relatives came to the English court including uncles Pietro and Bonifacio. Pietro lived in England for a long time, served as a diplomat, and became Earl of Richmond. In 1263, he became Count of Savoy.  Bonifacio became Archbishop of Canterbury, a position secured by his brother-in-law Henry III. In 1247, Henry’s half-brothers from his mother’s second marriage, the Lusignans came to England and competed for lands and promotions with the queen’s Savoy relatives. Henry’s relatives were rewarded with large estates, largely at the expense of the English barons. From 1236 to 1258, the weak king fluctuated repeatedly between various advisers including his brother Richard of Cornwall and his Lusignan half-brothers, greatly displeasing the English barons. In addition, the English barons were displeased with Henry III’s demands for extra funds, Henry’s methods of government, and widespread famine.

The displeasure of the English nobility with the king ultimately resulted in a civil war, the Second Barons’ War (1264–1267). The leader of the forces against Henry was led by his brother-in-law Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester, who was married to Henry’s sister Eleanor. de Montfort wanted to reassert the Magna Carta and force the king to surrender more power to the baron’s council.

In 1264 at the Battle of Lewes, Henry and his son, the future King Edward I, were defeated and captured. Henry was forced to summon a parliament and promise to rule with the advice of a council of barons. Henry was reduced to a figurehead king, and de Montfort broadened parliamentary representation to include groups beyond the nobility, members from each county of England, and many important towns. Fifteen months later, Edward led the royalists into battle again, defeating and killing de Montfort at the Battle of Evesham in 1265. Ultimately, authority was restored to King Henry III and severe retribution was exacted on the rebellious barons. In 1266, a reconciliation between the king and the rebels was worked out with the Dictum of Kenilworth. In the years that followed his death, Simon de Montfort’s grave was frequently visited by pilgrims. Today, de Montfort is considered one of the fathers of representative government.

Henry was increasingly ill and infirm during his final years. His son and heir Edward became the Steward of England and began to play a more prominent role in government. The most important legacy of King Henry III is Westminster Abbey. In 1042, Edward the Confessor began rebuilding St. Peter’s Abbey to provide himself with a royal burial church, the first Westminster Abbey. Construction of the second and present church began in 1245 by Henry III who selected the site for his burial. In 1269, Henry oversaw a grand ceremony to rebury Edward the Confessor in a magnificent new shrine, helping to carry the body to its new resting place.

King Henry III died at the age of 69 on November 16, 1272, at the Palace of Westminster in London, England. By his own direction, Henry was buried in the original coffin of Edward the Confessor. Eventually, a grander tomb was built for Henry, and on May 10, 1290, his remains were moved to their current location in Westminster Abbey in Edward the Confessor’s Chapel, in a tomb directly north of Edward the Confessor’s shrine.

This article is the intellectual property of Unofficial Royalty and is NOT TO BE COPIED, EDITED, OR POSTED IN ANY FORM ON ANOTHER WEBSITE under any circumstances. It is permissible to use a link that directs to Unofficial Royalty.

England: House of Plantagenet Resources at Unofficial Royalty

• United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland Index
• House of Plantagenet Index (1216 – 1399)
• British Royal Births, Marriages, Deaths, and Other Important Events
• Coronations after the Norman Conquest (1066 – present)
• History and Traditions: Norman and Plantagenet Weddings
• House of Plantagenet Burial Sites

by Susan Flantzer  © Unofficial Royalty 2015

King Edward III of England is considered one of the important English rulers of the Middle Ages. After the disastrous reign of his father King Edward II, Edward III made his kingdom into one of the most organized military powers in Europe. During his reign there were changes in the government with the legislative branch, Parliament, gaining power. Edward’s reign of 50 years, 147 days is surpassed only by the reigns of King Henry III, King George III, Queen Victoria, and Queen Elizabeth II.

Edward was born on November 13, 1312, at Windsor Castle in Windsor, England. During his childhood, he was called Edward of Windsor after his birthplace, a common way of naming royal children at the time. He was the eldest child of King Edward II of England and Isabella of France, daughter of King Philippe IV of France and Queen Joan I of Navarre. Several days after his birth, his father, the first English Prince of Wales, created him Earl of Chester, but for some reason, never created him Prince of Wales.

Edward had three younger siblings:

• John of Eltham, 1st Earl of Cornwall (1316 – 1336), unmarried, no children
• Eleanor of Woodstock (1318 – 1355), married Reinoud II of Guelders, had two sons
• Joan of The Tower (1321 – 1362), married David II, King of Scots, no children

Edward had a difficult childhood. His father Edward II was a weak king, and his relationship with his favorites Piers Gaveston and Hugh Despenser the Younger, whether they were friends, lovers, or sworn brothers, was problematic and caused discontent among the nobles and the royal family. Opposition to the regime grew, and when Edward II’s wife Isabella was sent to France to negotiate a peace treaty in 1325, she turned against Edward and refused to return. Isabella allied herself with the exiled Roger Mortimer, 3rd Baron Mortimer, 1st Earl of March, and invaded England with a small army in 1326. Edward II’s regime collapsed and he fled to Wales, where he was captured in November 1326. Edward was forced to give up his crown in January 1327 in favor of his 14-year-old son Edward III, with Isabella and Mortimer acting as regents. King Edward III was crowned in Westminster Abbey on February 1, 1327. Edward II died in Berkeley Castle on September 21, 1327, probably murdered on the orders of Isabella and Mortimer.

During this same period, Edward III was searching for a bride and chose Philippa of Hainault.   Born June 24, 1314, Philippa was the daughter of William I, Count of Hainault (also Count of Holland, Count of Avesnes, and Count of Zeeland) and Joan of Valois. When Philippa was only eight years old, she was already considered a bride for the future King Edward III who was only seven. Walter de Stapledon, Bishop of Exeter was sent to inspect Philippa. The bishop gave a very detailed report to King Edward II. Seven years later in 1326 Prince Edward and his mother Queen Isabella checked out Philippa when they visited the court of Hainault. The young prince liked what he saw and he and Philippa were betrothed in the summer of 1326.

A year later on January 24, 1328, Edward and Philippa married at York Minster in York, England. The couple’s main home was Woodstock Palace in Oxfordshire, England. It was Philippa’s favorite residence and the birthplace of four of her fourteen children including her eldest child, Edward the Black Prince, who was born days before her sixteenth birthday. The sons of Edward and Philippa married into the English nobility and their descendants later battled for the throne in the Wars of the Roses.

Edward and Philippa had fourteen children:

• • Edward, Prince of Wales, the Black Prince (1330 – 1376), married Joan, 4th Countess of Kent, had two sons, only the future King Richard II survived childhood
  • Isabella of England (1332 – 1379) married Enguerrand VII de Coucy, 1st Earl of Bedford, had two daughters
  • Joan of England (circa1334 – 1348), died of the plague on the way to marry Pedro of Castile
  • William of Hatfield (born and died 1337)
  • Lionel of Antwerp, 1st Duke of Clarence (1338 – 1368), married (1) Elizabeth de Burgh, 4th Countess of Ulster, had one daughter (2) Violante Visconti, no children
  • John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster (1340 – 1399), married (1) Blanche of Lancaster, had seven children including King Henry IV of England (2) Infanta Constance of Castile, had one daughter and one son (3) Katherine Swynford (formerly his mistress), had three sons and one daughter (Note: All monarchs of England, Great Britain, and the United Kingdom since King Henry IV are descended from John of Gaunt, and most European monarchies are also descended from John. The Houses of Lancaster, York, and Tudor were all descended from John of Gaunt’s children.)
  • Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York (1341 – 1402), married (1) Infanta Isabella of Castile, had two sons and one daughter (2) Joan Holland, no children
  • Blanche of the Tower (born and died March 1342)
  • Mary of Waltham (1344 – 1362), married John V, Duke of Brittany, no children
  • Margaret of Windsor, Countess of Pembroke (1346 – 1361), married John Hastings, 2nd Earl of Pembroke, no children
  • Thomas of Windsor (1347 – 1348), died of the plague
  • William of Windsor (born and died 1348), died of the plague
  • Thomas of Woodstock, 1st Duke of Gloucester (1355 – 1397), married Eleanor de Bohun, had one son and four daughters

Edward III was theoretically King of England, but the true ruler was Roger Mortimer, 1st Earl of March. After the birth of Edward and Philippa’s first son, Mortimer realized that his situation had deteriorated. Many nobles were jealous and angry because Mortimer abused power. Then, in March 1330, Mortimer ordered the execution of Edmund of Woodstock, Earl of Kent, the half-brother of Edward II. After this execution, the nobles begged the young king to assert his independence, which he did shortly before his 18th birthday. In October 1330, Parliament was summoned to Nottingham Castle, and Mortimer and Isabella were seized by Edward and the nobles. Isabella begged for mercy for Mortimer, but he was accused of assuming royal power and of various other crimes and was condemned without a trial and hanged. Isabella was initially held at Berkhamsted Castle and then held under house arrest at Windsor Castle until 1332, when she moved back to her own home Castle Rising in Norfolk where she died on August 22, 1358.

Edward’s main preoccupation during his long reign was his claim to the French throne which started the Hundred Years War.  In 1340, Edward assumed the title of King of France through his mother, as the heir of her brother King Charles IV of France who had died in 1328 without a male heir.  The French did not recognize inheritance through the female line and Charles IV had been succeeded by his cousin King Philippe VI.  Edward did homage to Philippe for his French lands, but later Philippe declared Edward’s French lands forfeit and invaded Guienne, part of the Duchy of Aquitaine which had come to the English monarchs through King Henry II’s wife Eleanor of Aquitaine, Duchess in her own right.

Edward III’s reaction was to take up arms and defend his French land by sea and by land. In the naval Battle of Sluys (1340), the English gained control of the English Channel. The English won the Battle of Crécy (1346) and the Battle of Poitiers (1356) with the superiority of the English longbowmen. In 1347, the port city of Calais was taken after a long siege, giving the English an important economic and military base.

The hero of these battles was Edward III’s eldest son and heir, Edward, Prince of Wales, who has come to be known as the Black Prince. The Black Prince died at the age of 45, probably of dysentery, in 1376, a year before his father died, and his son succeeded his grandfather as King Richard II.

Edward III’s reign saw many changes. England prospered through the export of wool but the prosperity was tempered by the devastation of the bubonic plague.  Modern historians give estimates of death rates ranging from around 25% to over 60% of the total English population. In 1362, English replaced French as the official language of the courts of law. A year later, Parliament was opened in English. Literary works, including Geoffrey Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales, were written in English. The office of Justice of the Peace was created and Parliament was divided into two houses. In 1348, Edward founded the Order of the Garter, still one of the leading orders of chivalry in Europe.

From about 1371, Edward III’s health was failing and he became senile. Edward’s third surviving son, John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster, led the affairs of state but he could not prevent military failures. An attempt led by Edward’s second surviving son, Lionel of Antwerp, 1st Duke of Clarence, to gain control of the Irish princes failed. In addition, there was a series of setbacks for the English, as the new French King Charles V defeated every military project of the English, and little by little the country recovered much of the land his father had lost. Ultimately, the only English possessions in France were Bordeaux, Calais, and Bayonne.

King Edward III suffered a stroke in May 1377. He died at Sheen Palace in Richmond, England on June 21, 1377, at the age of 64, and was buried in Westminster Abbey in London, England beside his wife Philippa, who had died in 1369.

This article is the intellectual property of Unofficial Royalty and is NOT TO BE COPIED, EDITED, OR POSTED IN ANY FORM ON ANOTHER WEBSITE under any circumstances. It is permissible to use a link that directs to Unofficial Royalty.

England: House of Plantagenet Resources at Unofficial Royalty

• United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland Index
• House of Plantagenet Index (1216 – 1399)
• British Royal Births, Marriages, Deaths, and Other Important Events
• Coronations after the Norman Conquest (1066 – present)
• History and Traditions: Norman and Plantagenet Weddings
• House of Plantagenet Burial Sites

by Susan Flantzer © Unofficial Royalty 2015

The last monarch of the House of Tudor, Queen Elizabeth I is number six on the list of the top ten longest-reigning British monarchs. She became queen at the age of 25 on November 17, 1558, and reigned for 44 years, 127 days until her death at age 69 on March 24, 1603. During Elizabeth’s reign, called the Elizabethan Age, the Church of England took its final form, a middle path between Catholicism and Reform Protestantism, William Shakespeare created numerous works, modern science had its birth based upon Francis Bacon‘s inductive method for scientific inquiry, Francis Drake sailed around the world, and the first colony in America was founded and named Virginia in honor of Elizabeth the Virgin Queen.

Elizabeth was born on September 7, 1533, at Greenwich Palace. She was the only surviving child of her parents, King Henry VIII and his second wife Anne Boleyn. Henry VIII was bitterly disappointed by the birth of a daughter. He already had letters to foreign courts prepared to announce a prince’s birth and there was only enough room to add one “s”. Elizabeth, named after her grandmothers Elizabeth of York, daughter of King Edward IV and wife of King Henry VII, and Lady Elizabeth Howard, daughter of Thomas Howard, 2nd Duke of Norfolk, was proclaimed heir presumptive to the throne displacing her elder half-sister Mary.

Henry VIII still wanted a male heir. After Elizabeth’s birth, Anne Boleyn had a stillborn son and then miscarried a son, and that sealed Anne’s fate. Henry was determined to be rid of Anne and her fall and execution were engineered by Thomas Cromwell. Anne was found guilty of the fabricated charges of adultery, incest, and high treason, and on May 19, 1536, was beheaded at the Tower of London. Elizabeth was not yet three years old. The Second Succession Act in 1536 declared Henry’s children by Jane Seymour, his third wife, to be next in the line of succession and declared both Mary and Elizabeth illegitimate and excluded from the succession. Catherine Parr, Henry VIII’s sixth and final wife, was partially responsible for reconciling Henry with his daughters Mary and Elizabeth and also developed a good relationship with Henry’s son Edward. She was also influential in Henry’s passing of the Third Succession Act in 1543 which restored both his daughters, Mary and Elizabeth, to the line of succession to the throne.

Elizabeth had one elder half-sister and one younger half-brother:

by Catherine of Aragon:

• Mary I, Queen of England (1516 – 1558), married King Philip II of Spain, no children

by Jane Seymour:

• Edward VI, King of England (1537 – 1553), unmarried

Elizabeth was kept away from court for a period of time, but she had her own household and was well-educated. Her most influential governess was Catherine Champernowne, better known by her later, married name of Catherine “Kat” Ashley, who was appointed Elizabeth’s governess in 1537. She taught Elizabeth astronomy, geography, history, mathematics, French, Flemish, Italian and Spanish. In addition, she taught Elizabeth non-academic pursuits such as needlework, embroidery, dancing, and riding. When Elizabeth became queen in 1558, Kat Ashley was appointed First Lady of the Bedchamber and when she died in 1565, Elizabeth was heartbroken.

In 1544, William Grindal became Elizabeth’s tutor and helped her progress in Latin and Greek. When Grindal died of the plague in 1548, Roger Ascham who lectured and taught Greek at St John’s College, Cambridge, took over as Elizabeth’s tutor. Ascham said of Elizabeth, “She talks French and Italian as well as English. She has often talked to me readily and well in Latin and moderately so in Greek. When she writes Greek and Latin nothing is more beautiful than her handwriting.”

When Henry VIII died in 1547, Elizabeth was sent to live in the household of Henry’s widow Catherine Parr, who soon married Thomas Seymour, the uncle of Elizabeth’s half-brother King Edward VI. When Catherine Parr became pregnant, Seymour began to take an interest in the 14-year-old Elizabeth. Seymour had reputedly plotted to marry Elizabeth before marrying Catherine, and it was reported later that Catherine discovered the two in an embrace. According to the testimony of Kat Ashley, on a few occasions, before the situation risked getting completely out of hand, Catherine appears not only to have given her permission for the horseplay but also assisted her husband. Elizabeth was sent away in May 1548 to stay with Sir Anthony Denny’s household and never again saw her beloved stepmother, who died of childbed fever shortly after giving birth to a daughter.

After the early death of Henry VIII’s son and heir Edward VI at the age of fifteen in 1553, Lady Jane Grey followed him to the throne. As Edward VI lay dying, he was persuaded to name Lady Jane Grey as his successor to prevent his Catholic half-sister Mary from becoming queen. This also excluded his half-sister Elizabeth, the descendants of his aunt Margaret Tudor and even Lady Jane’s own mother Frances Brandon who was the daughter of his aunt Mary Tudor. Within nine days Mary asserted her rightful claim to the English throne. On August 3, 1553, as Queen Mary I rode triumphantly into London, her half-sister Elizabeth was at her side. Soon there was a rift between the sisters. Mary was a devout Catholic and Elizabeth leaned toward Protestantism.

In 1554, Elizabeth refused to participate in Sir Thomas Wyatt’s Rebellion which arose out of concern over Queen Mary I’s determination to marry Philip of Spain. Nevertheless, Elizabeth was imprisoned in the Tower of London. Elizabeth was moved from the Tower to Woodstock in Oxfordshire, where she was to spend almost a year under house arrest. She was then moved to Hatfield House in Hertfordshire, where she eventually received the news of the death of her half-sister Mary and her accession to the throne on November 17, 1558. Upon hearing the news, Elizabeth reportedly said, “This is the Lord’s doing and it is marvelous in our eyes.” Elizabeth’s coronation took place on January 15, 1559, at Westminster Abbey in London, England.

From the start of Elizabeth’s reign, she was expected to marry to provide for the succession. Although she received many offers, she never did marry and the reasons for this are unclear. She continued to consider suitors until she was about fifty. In October 1562, Elizabeth had smallpox and there was fear she would die. Elizabeth was the last surviving Tudor and was still unmarried and childless. After her recovery, the succession question became a heated debate in Parliament. Parliament urged the queen to marry or nominate an heir, and she refused to do either. Her last courtship (1579 – 1581) was with Francis, Duke of Anjou, who was 22 years younger.

Important People During Elizabeth I’s Reign

• Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester: nobleman, the favorite and close friend of Elizabeth I
• Sir Francis Walsingham: principal secretary to Queen Elizabeth I, popularly remembered as her “spymaster”
• Sir Francis Drake: sea captain, privateer, navigator, slaver, and politician; second person to circumnavigate the world
• Sir Walter Raleigh: writer, poet, soldier, politician, courtier, spy, and explorer; popularized tobacco in England, granted Raleigh a royal charter, authorizing him to explore, colonize, and rule in the New World
• Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex:  nobleman and a favorite of Elizabeth I, executed for leading an unsuccessful coup d’état
• William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley: statesman, chief advisor of Queen Elizabeth I, Secretary of State and Lord High Treasurer
• Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury: administrator and politician, Secretary of State, Chief Minister
• Sir Nicholas Throckmorton: English diplomat and politician
• Sir Christopher Hatton: politician, Lord Chancellor of England and a favorite of Elizabeth I
• Matthew Parker, Archbishop of Canterbury
• Edmund Grindal, Archbishop of Canterbury
• John Whitgift, Archbishop of Canterbury

Some Events of Elizabeth I’s Reign

• 1558: Act of Supremacy: re-established the Church of England’s independence from Rome, Elizabeth is given the title Supreme Governor of the Church of England
• 1559: Act of Uniformity: outlined what form the English Church should take, re-established the Book of Common Prayer
• 1568: Mary, Queen of Scots is imprisoned after losing her crown and fleeing to England
• 1570: Regnans in Excelsis: papal bull issued by Pope Pius V, declared Elizabeth to be a heretic, released all of her subjects from any allegiance to her, and excommunicated any who obeyed her orders
• 1577–1580: Sir Francis Drake sails around the world
• 1584: Virginia colony of Roanoke Island established by Sir Walter Raleigh
• 1585–1604: Anglo–Spanish War, an intermittent conflict between Spain and England
• 1586: England and Scotland signed the Treaty of Berwick, a peace and defensive agreement
• 1587: Mary, Queen of Scots is executed after her implication in the Babington Plot, a plot to assassinate Queen Elizabeth I, Queen Elizabeth signs the death warrant
• 1588: Spanish Armada is defeated, part of the Anglo-Spanish War
• 1594 – 1603: Nine Years’ War or Tyrone’s Rebellion between the forces of Gaelic Irish chieftains and their allies, against English rule in Ireland
• 1600: Queen Elizabeth I grants a charter to East India Company,
  the beginning of the British Empire in India

Elizabeth was vain about her appearance and loved to dress in elaborate dresses, bedecked with many jewels. She refused to admit that she was aging and in later life, she wore a huge red wig and used many cosmetics. Mirrors in her palaces were removed so she did not have to look at her aging reflection.

In January 1603, while suffering from a cold, Elizabeth moved from Whitehall Palace to Richmond Palace. She recovered from the cold but fell ill at the end of February with severe tonsillitis. She had no appetite and suffered from insomnia. On March 18, 1603, she became very ill and refused to go to bed, instead lying on a heap of pillows piled on the floor. When Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury urged her to go to bed, Elizabeth showed a last flash of her feisty spirit and said to him, “Little man, little man, MUST is not a word to use to princes.”

Since none of the children of Henry VIII had children, King James VI of Scotland, the only child of Mary, Queen of Scots, was the senior heir of King Henry VII through his eldest daughter Margaret Tudor. From 1601 onward, Sir Robert Cecil, Queen Elizabeth’s chief minister, maintained a secret correspondence with James to facilitate a smooth succession. On her deathbed, Queen Elizabeth finally gave assent for James to succeed her. Queen Elizabeth I died on March 24, 1603, at the age of 69. A messenger was sent at once to Scotland to bring James the news of his accession to the English throne as King James I of England. Elizabeth was buried at Westminster Abbey in the same vault as her half-sister Queen Mary I. The tomb erected above only has Elizabeth’s effigy, but King James I ordered this to be inscribed upon the tomb in Latin: Regno consortes et urna, Hic obdorminus Elizabetha et Maria sonores in spe resurrectionis – Partners both in throne and grave, here we rest as sisters, in hope of our resurrection.

This article is the intellectual property of Unofficial Royalty and is NOT TO BE COPIED, EDITED, OR POSTED IN ANY FORM ON ANOTHER WEBSITE under any circumstances. It is permissible to use a link that directs to Unofficial Royalty.

England: House of Tudor Resources at Unofficial Royalty

• United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland Index
• House of Tudor Index
• British Royal Births, Marriages, Deaths, and Other Important Events
• Coronations after the Norman Conquest (1066 – present)
• First Cousins of Queen Elizabeth I
• History and Traditions: Tudor Weddings
• House of Tudor Burial Sites
• House of Tudor Christenings

by Susan Flantzer  © Unofficial Royalty 2015

King Henry VI from the House of Lancaster had a tough act to follow. His father was King Henry V, a warrior king, the victor against the French at the Battle of Agincourt, determined to conquer France once and for all, succumbed to dysentery, a disease that killed more soldiers than battle, on August 31, 1422, at the age of 35, leaving a nine-month-old son to inherit his throne. Two years before his death, Henry V had married Catherine of Valois, the daughter of King Charles VI and Isabeau of Bavaria. On October 21, 1422, Henry VI became titular King of France upon his grandfather Charles VI’s death in accordance with the Treaty of Troyes.

Henry VI, born on December 6, 1421, at Windsor Castle, is the youngest-ever English monarch. He is also on the top ten list of longest-reigning British monarchs, coming in at number seven. He reigned for two periods, from August 31, 1422 – March 4, 1461, and then from October 31, 1470 – April 11, 1471, for a total period of 38 years, 347 days. The baby king, seated in his mother’s lap, presided over Parliament on September 28, 1423, when the nobles swore loyalty to him. One of Henry V’s surviving brothers, John, Duke of Bedford, was appointed Regent and put in charge of the ongoing war in France. During Bedford’s absence, the government of England was headed by Henry V’s other surviving brother, Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, who was appointed Protector and Defender of the Realm.

With Henry’s mother Catherine being a young widow with apparently no chance of remarriage, it should not seem unusual that an amorous relationship would be likely.  Owen ap Maredudd ap Tudor, a Welsh soldier, served in Catherine’s household and their relationship began when Catherine was living at Windsor Castle.  There is much debate as to whether Catherine and Owen married.  No documentation of marriage exists and even if they did marry, their marriage would not have been legal due to the act regarding the remarriage of a queen dowager.  From the relationship between Owen Tudor and Catherine of Valois descended King Henry VII of England and the Tudor Dynasty.  Through their great-granddaughter Margaret Tudor descended the British royal family and many other European royal families.

Henry VI had at least six half-siblings from the relationship between his mother Catherine and Owen Tudor:

• Thomas Tudor (1429 – 1501) He became a monk at Westminster Abbey and was known as Edward Bridgewater.
• Edmund Tudor, 1st Earl of Richmond (1430 – 1456) He married Lady Margaret Beaufort, and they were the parents of Henry Tudor, the future King Henry VII, Edmund died of the plague shortly before his son’s birth.
• Jasper Tudor, 1st Earl of Pembroke and 1st Duke of Bedford (1431 – 1495) He married Catherine Woodville, daughter of Richard Woodville, 1st Earl Rivers and Jacquetta of Luxembourg.  He had no legitimate children but did have two illegitimate children. One was Joan Tudor, an ancestor of Oliver Cromwell.
• Owen Tudor (1432–1510) He became a monk at Westminster Abbey.
• Tacinda Tudor (b. 1433) She married Reginald Grey, Baron Grey of Wilton and had issue.
• (Daughter) Tudor (b. c. 1435)  She became a nun.
• Margaret (Catherine) Tudor (born January 1437), died shortly after birth.

Henry VI was crowned at Westminster Abbey in London, England on November 6, 1429. Two years later, on December 16, 1431, he was crowned King of France at Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris, France. Before Henry came of age, English rule in France had begun a steady decline with Joan of Arc‘s campaign supporting the Dauphin of France, later King Charles VII of France. By 1453, only Calais remained of Henry V’s French conquests.

Henry VI, more interested in religion and learning than military matters, was not a successful king. He was shy, peaceful, and pious, hated bloodshed and deceit, and was not a warrior like his father. Instead of wearing the fashions of the day, Henry dressed in the clothing of a farmer or merchant. He lacked any administrative skills which left him open to the machinations of his advisers. Henry concerned himself with the two educational institutions he had founded, Eton College and King’s College, Cambridge.

When it was time for him to marry, his advisers persuaded Henry VI that the way to achieve peace with France was to marry Margaret of Anjou, the niece of King Charles VII of France. The couple was married at Titchfield Abbey in England on April 23, 1445. Margaret was to prove as strong as Henry was weak.

Henry and Margaret had one child, born eight years after their marriage:

• Edward of Westminster, Prince of Wales (1453 – 1471), married Anne Neville (who later married King Richard III), no issue, killed at the Battle of Tewkesbury

Shortly before his son was born, Henry VI had a mental breakdown. He was unable to recognize or respond to people for over a year. These attacks may have been hereditary. Henry’s maternal grandfather King Charles VI suffered similar attacks, even thinking he was made of glass. Sometimes Henry also had hallucinations which makes some modern medical experts think he may have had a form of schizophrenia. Porphyria, which may have afflicted King George III, has also been suggested as a cause. During Henry’s incapacity, Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York and the next in line to the throne after Henry’s son, governed as Lord Protector.

Even before the birth of Henry’s son, factions were forming and the seeds of the Wars of the Roses were being planted. Henry’s wife Margaret aligned herself with Edmund Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset. Margaret believed her husband was threatened with being deposed by Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York who thought he had a better claim to the throne and would be a better king than Henry.  After Henry’s recovery in 1455, the Duke of York was dismissed, and Margaret and the Duke of Somerset became all-powerful. Eventually, things came to a head between the Lancastrians and the Yorkists, and war broke out.

At the First Battle of St. Albans on May 22, 1455, the Duke of Somerset was killed. Afterward, there was a peace of sorts, but hostilities started again four years later. On July 10, 1460, Henry was captured at the Battle of Northampton and was forced to recognize the Duke of York as his heir instead of his own son. Margaret rallied the Lancastrian forces and was victorious at the Battle of Wakefield on December 29, 1460. The Duke of York and his second son Edmund, Earl of Rutland were both killed in the battle.

The leader of the Yorkists was now the late Duke of York’s eldest son Edward, Earl of March (the future King Edward IV). During the Second Battle of St. Albans on February 17, 1461, Henry’s freedom was secured and it is alleged that he laughed and sang insanely throughout the battle. The Yorkists regained the upper hand at the Battle of Towton on March 29, 1461. Edward, Earl of March defeated the Lancastrian forces in a snowstorm. Henry fled to Scotland, and England had a new king, Edward IV from the House of York.

Henry VI returned from Scotland in 1464 and participated in an ineffective uprising. In 1465, Henry was captured and taken to the Tower of London. Margaret, exiled in France, wanted to restore the throne to her husband. Coincidentally, King Edward IV had a falling out with his major supporters, his brother George, Duke of Clarence and Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick, known as the Kingmaker. Margaret, Clarence, and Warwick formed an alliance at the urging of King Louis XI of France. Edward IV was forced into exile, and Henry VI was restored to the throne on October 30, 1470. However, once again, Edward IV got the upper hand. Edward IV returned to England in early 1471 and killed Warwick at the Battle of Barnet.  The final decisive Yorkist victory was at the Battle of Tewkesbury on May 4, 1471, where Henry’s son Edward was killed. Henry was returned to the Tower of London and died on May 21, 1471, probably murdered on orders from Edward IV.

• Unofficial Royalty: Assassination of Henry VI, King of England

King Henry VI was first buried at Chertsey Abbey but was moved in 1484 by King Richard III, brother of King Edward IV, to St. George’s Chapel at Windsor Castle. Ironically, the burial sites of King Henry VI and his rival King Edward IV lie opposite each other in eternal peace.

Henry VI had half-siblings from his mother’s second marriage to Owen Tudor, one of whom was Edmund Tudor, 1st Earl of Richmond who married Lady Margaret Beaufort. Their son Henry Tudor, eventually was the senior male Lancastrian claimant remaining after the Wars of the Roses. In 1485, Henry Tudor won the English throne when his forces defeated the forces of King Richard III, King Edward IV’s brother, at the Battle of Bosworth Field, becoming King Henry VII by the right of conquest. Henry VII married Elizabeth of York, the eldest daughter of the Yorkist King Edward IV, and started the House of Tudor.

This article is the intellectual property of Unofficial Royalty and is NOT TO BE COPIED, EDITED, OR POSTED IN ANY FORM ON ANOTHER WEBSITE under any circumstances. It is permissible to use a link that directs to Unofficial Royalty.

England: House of Lancaster Resources at Unofficial Royalty

• United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland Index
• House of Lancaster Index
• British Royal Births, Marriages, Deaths, and Other Important Events
• Coronations after the Norman Conquest (1066 – present)
• History and Traditions: Norman and Plantagenet Weddings
• House of Lancaster Burial Sites

by Susan Flantzer © Unofficial Royalty 2015

Æthelred II (the Unready), King of the English was from the Anglo-Saxon House of Wessex. He was a great-great-grandson of King Alfred the Great and the father of two kings, Edmund Ironside and Edward the Confessor. His nickname in Old English was unræd which means “no counsel” and describes the poor quality of advice that Æthelred received throughout his reign. Æthelred is number eight on the top ten list of longest-reigning British monarchs. He reigned for two separate periods (March 18, 978 – December 25, 1013 and February 3, 1014 – April 23, 1016) for a total of 37 years, 362 days.

Æthelred was born circa 966 – 968 to King Edgar the Peaceful and Ælfthryth, daughter of Ordgar, Ealdorman of Devon.

He had three elder siblings:

• Eadgyth, a half-sibling (961 – 984), later known as Saint Edith of Wilton
• Edward the Martyr, King of England, a half-sibling (c. 962 – 978)
• Edmund, a full sibling who died young, circa 970

In 975, King Edgar died and left two sons, Edward around 13 years of age and Æthelred around 8 years old. Various nobles and clergy formed factions that supported each of the brothers’ succession to the crown. Both boys were too young to have played any significant role in political maneuvering, and so it was the brothers’ supporters who were responsible for the turmoil that accompanied the choice of a successor to the throne. In the end, Edward’s supporters proved more powerful and persuasive, and he was crowned king before the year was out.

Edward’s reign was short-lived. On March 18, 978 while visiting Æthelred and his mother, Edward was stabbed to death. Although Æthelred was not suspected of participation, it appears that his supporters committed the murder, and the specter of his half-brother’s murder hung over him for the rest of his life. Edward is recognized as a saint in the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Roman Catholic Church, and the Anglican Church, and is known as Saint Edward the Martyr.

Æthelred was crowned on April 14, 979 at Kingston Upon Thames, now in southwest London, then an ancient market town where Saxon kings were crowned. In an Icelandic saga, by Gunnlaugr Ormstunga (Gunnlaugr “Serpent-Tongue” or “Wormtongue”), Æthelred is described as, “[A] tall, handsome man, elegant in manners, beautiful in countenance, and interesting in his deportment.” Gunnlaugr’s travels took him to England and he met Æthelred.

Around 985, Æthelred married Ælfgifu of York, daughter of Thored, Ealdorman of York.  Ælfgifu appears to have died by 1002, possibly in childbirth. Æthelred and Ælfgifu’s known children are:

(Note: Ætheling was used in Anglo-Saxon England to designate princes of the royal dynasty eligible for the kingship.)

• Æthelstan Ætheling (died 1014)
• Ecgberht Ætheling (died c. 1005)
• Edmund Ironside, King of the English (died 1016), married Ealdgyth, had issue
• Eadred Ætheling (died before 1013)
• Eadwig Ætheling (died 1017)
• Edgar Ætheling (died c. 1008)
• Eadgyth or Edith, married Eadric Streona
• Ælfgifu, married Uhtred the Bold, Ealdorman of Northumbria
• Wulfhilda, married Ulfcytel Snillingr
• Name unknown, Abbess of Wherwell Abbey

In 1002, Æthelred married Emma of Normandy, the daughter of Richard I, Duke of Normandy.  Emma’s brother, Richard II, Duke of Normandy, attempted to improve relations with England through his sister’s marriage to King Æthelred. This marriage was also important because it gave Richard II’s grandson, William the Conqueror, the basis of his claim to the throne of England. Æthelred and Emma had three children:

• Edward the Confessor, King of the English (between 1003 and 1005 – January 5, 1066), married Edith of Wessex, no children
• Alfred Ætheling (died 1036–7)
• Goda of England (1004 – c. 1047), married (1) Drogo of Mantes, Count of the Véxin, had three sons (2) Eustace II, Count of Boulogne, no children

After Æthelred’s death, Emma married Cnut the Great, King of England, Denmark, and Norway and their son Harthacnut was King of England and Denmark.

In England, the beginning of the Viking Age is dated to June 8, 793, when Vikings destroyed Lindisfarne Abbey, a center of learning on an island off the northeast coast of England in Northumberland. The Scandinavians’ desire for goods led to the exploration and development of extensive partnerships in new territories. In addition, it has been suggested that the Scandinavian population was too large for their home peninsula and there was not enough good farmland for everyone. This led to a hunt for more land. This hunt for trade and farming land was often violent and there were many conflicts and battles between the Vikings and the Anglo-Saxons. In 886, the Treaty of Alfred and Guthrum was formalized, defining the boundaries of the English kingdom and Danish or Norse kingdoms (called Danelaw), with provisions for peaceful relations between the English and the Vikings.

• Wikipedia: Viking Age
• Wikipedia: Danelaw

England had experienced a period of peace after the reconquest of the Danelaw in the mid-10th century by King Edgar, Æthelred’s father. King Edgar allowed for limited autonomy in the Danelaw. However, in 980 a series of Viking coastal raids began. During this time, the Normans (comes from the French Normans/Normanz meaning Norseman) who were descended from Viking conquerors, allowed the Viking raiders to take refuge in their ports. This led to tension between the English and Norman courts, and Pope John XV had to negotiate peace between England and Normandy, ratified in Rouen, Normandy in 991.

In August of 991, a large Danish fleet invaded southeast England and headed up the Thames estuary toward London. The Battle of Maldon ensued which ended in the defeat of the Anglo-Saxons. Æthelred and his council bought the Danes off with 22,000 pounds of gold and silver, thereby instituting the policy of regular protection money called Danegeld to the Danes. These raids and the subsequent payment of Danegeld continued for several years.

According to The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, in 1002 King Æthelred was told that the Danish men in England “would faithlessly take his life, and then all his councilors, and possess his kingdom afterward.” In response, Æthelred “ordered slain all the Danish men in England.” St. Brice’s Day Massacre occurred on November 13, 1002, the feast day of St. Brice, fifth-century Bishop of Tours. There was a significant loss of life including Gunhilde, the sister of Sweyn Forkbeard, King of Denmark and Norway. In retaliation, Sweyn attacked England in 1003 – 1004, burning Norwich, but famine in 1005 caused him to retreat.

The Danish invaders returned and within a few years, all of England came under Danish rule. In 1013, Sweyn was acknowledged as King of England. Æthelred fled to the Isle of Wight and then to Normandy. Sweyn died on February 3, 1014, and the Danes in England swore their allegiance to Sweyn’s son Cnut the Great, but leading English noblemen sent a deputation to Æthelred to negotiate his restoration to the throne. Æthelred launched an attack against Cnut and his allies, but Cnut’s army had not completed its preparations and, in April 1014, he decided to withdraw from England without a fight. Æthelred returned to England and reigned until he died in London on April 23, 1016. He was buried in Old St Paul’s Cathedral in London, but his tomb was destroyed along with the cathedral in the Great Fire of London in 1666.

Æthelred’s son Edmund Ironside was now King but had to fight Cnut to keep the Kingdom of England. The war between Edmund and Cnut ended in a decisive victory for Cnut at the Battle of Assandun on October 18, 1016. Because Edmund’s reputation as a warrior was great, Cnut agreed to divide England, Edmund taking Wessex and Cnut the rest of the country beyond the River Thames. However, Edmund died on November 30, 1016, and Cnut the Great became King of England. Cnut later became King of Denmark and King of Norway and married Æthelred’s widow Emma of Normandy.

This article is the intellectual property of Unofficial Royalty and is NOT TO BE COPIED, EDITED, OR POSTED IN ANY FORM ON ANOTHER WEBSITE under any circumstances. It is permissible to use a link that directs to Unofficial Royalty.

England: House of Wessex Resources at Unofficial Royalty

• Unofficial Royalty: House of Wessex Index
• Unofficial Royalty: British Royal Burial Sites: House of Wessex
• Unofficial Royalty: Coronations before the Norman Conquest (871 – 1066)

by Susan Flantzer  © Unofficial Royalty 2015

King Henry VIII of England is known for his six wives, but he also makes the list for the top ten longest-reigning British monarchs coming in at number nine with a reign of 37 years, 281 days. He became king in 1509, two months short of his 18th birthday, and reigned until his death at the age of 55 in 1547. Henry and his siblings represented the merging of the Lancasters and the Yorks who fought for power during the Wars of the Roses. By 1483, Henry VIII’s father, Henry Tudor, was the senior male Lancastrian claimant. Henry VIII’s mother, Elizabeth of York, was the eldest daughter of the Yorkist King Edward IV, the elder brother of King Richard III. In 1485, Henry Tudor won the throne when his forces defeated the forces of King Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth Field, becoming king by the right of conquest. The new dynasty was the House of Tudor descended in the male line from the Tudors of Penmynydd in Wales. Upon his marriage to Elizabeth of York, Henry VII adopted the Tudor Rose combining the white rose of the House of York and the red rose of the House of Lancaster.

Henry was born at Greenwich Palace on June 28, 1491, the third child and the second son of his parents. He had six siblings:

• Arthur, Prince of Wales (1486 – 1502), married Catherine of Aragon, no issue
• Margaret Tudor (1489 – 1541), married (1) James IV, King of Scots, had issue including James V, King of Scots, father of Mary, Queen of Scots (2) Archibald Douglas, 6th Earl of Angus, had one daughter Lady Margaret Douglas who was the mother of Henry, Lord Darnley, the second husband of Mary, Queen of Scots and father of Mary’s only child James VI, King of Scots/James I, King of England (3) Henry Stewart, 1st Lord Methven, no issue
• Elizabeth Tudor (1492 – 1495), died young
• Mary Tudor (1496 – 1533), married (1) Louis XII, King of France, no issue (2) Charles Brandon, 1st Duke of Suffolk, had issue, grandmother of Lady Jane Grey
• Edmund Tudor, Duke of Somerset (1499 – 1500), died young
• Katherine Tudor (born and died 1503), died shortly after birth, her mother died of childbirth complications

The heir to the throne, Arthur, Prince of Wales had his own household at Ludlow Castle in the Marches of Wales. Henry and his other siblings were raised at Eltham Palace at Greenwich in London. Henry’s first tutor was the English poet John Skelton who taught his pupil Latin, ancient authors, history, music, and poetry. Henry continued to receive a Renaissance humanist education with tutors William Hune and Giles Duwe. Henry was fluent in French and Latin, played several instruments, and composed religious and secular songs.

At the age of three, Henry was created Duke of York and a year later he was appointed to the Order of the Garter. On November 14, 1501, ten-year-old Henry led Catherine of Aragon (the youngest daughter of Queen Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdinand II of Aragon), his brother Arthur’s bride, to the altar at Old St. Paul’s Cathedral. Five months later, Arthur died from “a malign vapor which proceeded from the air” and Henry was the heir to the throne. He immediately became Duke of Cornwall and was created Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester on February 18, 1503.

King Henry VII did not want to lose Catherine of Aragon’s dowry or the alliance he had made with Spain, so he offered Henry, who was five years younger than Catherine, to be her husband. Several problems with negotiations made it doubtful that the marriage would ever take place. With little money, Catherine lived as a virtual prisoner at Durham House in London from 1502 – 1509. King Henry VII died on April 21, 1509, and 17-year-old Henry succeeded him.

Henry VIII’s Lord Chancellors: The Lord Chancellor was the King’s chief adviser.

• William Warham, Archbishop of Canterbury: married and crowned Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon
• Thomas Wolsey, Cardinal Archbishop of York: started as Henry’s almoner, but within a few years became powerful in all matters of state, lost all his government titles after failing to negotiate an annulment of Henry’s marriage to Catherine of Aragon, died on his way to London to answer charges of treason
• Sir Thomas More: lawyer, social philosopher, author, statesman, and Renaissance humanist; opposed the Protestant Reformation, tried for treason for not taking the Oath of Supremacy, was convicted and beheaded, canonized as a Roman Catholic saint
• Sir Thomas Audley, later Baron Audley of Walden: barrister and judge, supported the King’s divorce from Catherine and the marriage with Anne Boleyn, presided at the trials of Bishop John Fisher and Sir Thomas More; participated in Anne Boleyn’s trial, recommended to Parliament the new Act of Succession, which made Jane Seymour’s issue legitimate
• Thomas Wriothesley, 1st Earl of Southampton: diplomat, one of the King’s personal secretaries, personally tortured the reformer Protestant Anne Askew on the rack, one of the executors of Henry’s will
• William Paulet, 1st Marquess of Winchester: a statesman who held many offices, one of the judges for the trials of Bishop John Fisher, Sir Thomas More, and the alleged lovers of Anne Boleyn

Other Important People During Henry VIII’s Reign

• Charles Brandon, 1st Duke of Suffolk: boyhood friend of Henry VIII, second husband of Henry’s sister Mary, held several positions in the royal household
• Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury: a leader of the English Reformation, helped build the case for the annulment of Henry’s marriage to Catherine of Aragon, wrote and compiled the first two editions of the Book of Common Prayer, burned at the stake for heresy during the reign of Henry’s Catholic daughter Mary I
• Thomas Cromwell: lawyer, statesman, and chief minister to Henry VIII from 1532 – 1540, advocate of the English Reformation, helped to engineer an annulment of the king’s marriage to Catherine of Aragon, played a prominent role in the downfall of Anne Boleyn, fell from power after arranging the King’s unsuccessful marriage to Anne of Cleves, executed for treason and heresy
• Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk: politician, played a major role in arranging the marriages of his nieces Anne Boleyn and Catherine Howard to Henry VIII, was stripped of the dukedom and imprisoned in the Tower, avoiding execution when Henry VIII died
• Sir Richard Rich: lawyer, Solicitor General, a major participant in the Dissolution of the Monasteries, helped prepare the cases against Bishop John Fisher and Sir Thomas More, played a major role in the downfall of Thomas Cromwell, was Lord Chancellor under King Edward VI

Wife One: Catherine of Aragon

One of Henry’s first acts as king was to plan to marry his widowed sister-in-law. Marriage to his brother’s widow depended on the Pope granting a dispensation because according to canon law, marriage to a brother’s widow was forbidden. Catherine testified that her marriage to Arthur was never consummated, and according to canon law, the marriage was not valid. On June 11, 1509, King Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon were privately married at the Grey Friars’ Church in Greenwich. The couple’s coronation took place at Westminster Abbey on June 23, 1509.

Catherine was pregnant six times and had only one surviving child Mary I, Queen of England.

• Unnamed daughter and son (January 31, 1510), stillborn
• Henry, Duke of Cornwall (January 1, 1511 – February 22, 1511)
• Henry, Duke of Cornwall (November 1513), lived for a few hours.
• Henry, Duke of Cornwall (January 5, 1515), stillborn
• Mary I, Queen of England (February 18, 1516 – November 17, 1558), married King Philip II of Spain, no issue
• Unnamed daughter (November 10, 1518 – November 17, 1518)

Henry and Catherine’s marriage was initially happy, but Henry was desperate for a male heir. By the mid-1520s, it became obvious that Catherine, who was five years older than Henry, was unlikely to have any more children. Henry became convinced that his marriage was cursed because Leviticus 20:21 says, “And if a man shall take his brother’s wife, it is an unclean thing: he hath uncovered his brother’s nakedness; they shall be childless.” Around the same time, Henry became enamored of Anne Boleyn, a lady-in-waiting to Catherine, and Henry began pursuing her.

Henry instructed Cardinal Wolsey to start negotiations with the Vatican to have his marriage to Catherine annulled. Catherine put up a valiant fight to save her marriage and was supported by her nephew Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor.  After several long years of negotiations, Cardinal Wolsey failed to obtain the annulment incurring the anger of Anne Boleyn, who brought about Wolsey’s dismissal as Chancellor. A far more reaching consequence was Henry’s break with Rome which was to lead to the Reformation in England and the establishment of the Church of England. In 1533, Henry nominated Thomas Cranmer as Archbishop of Canterbury, and in May 1533, Cranmer declared that because Henry and Catherine’s marriage was against the law of God, it was null and void. Catherine was banished from the court and Henry refused her the right to any title but “Dowager Princess of Wales” in recognition of her position as his brother’s widow. She was forbidden to see her daughter and died at Kimbolton Castle on January 7, 1536.

Wife Two: Anne Boleyn

Anne Boleyn was the daughter of Sir Thomas Boleyn and Lady Elizabeth Howard, daughter of Thomas Howard, 2nd Duke of Norfolk. Lady Elizabeth’s brother was the Tudor courtier, Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk. Anne’s birth date and birthplace are uncertain, but Anne grew up with her siblings at Hever Castle. She served at the French court as a maid of honor to Mary Tudor, the wife of King Louis XII of France, and Claude of France, daughter of Louis XII and wife of his successor François I, King of France. Upon her return to England, she was appointed a maid of honor to Catherine of Aragon.

The lively and vivacious Anne soon attracted admirers at the English court including King Henry VIII. As stated above, Henry was desperate for a male heir and thought Anne could give him one. Anne refused to become Henry’s mistress as her sister Mary had. However, she continued to flirt with him and entered into an amorous correspondence with him. Meanwhile, Henry set into action the machinations that would annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon. When Henry secretly married Anne on January 25, 1533, at the Palace of Westminster, she was already pregnant with her first child. On May 25, 1533, Thomas Cranmer declared Henry and Catherine’s marriage null and void and five days later, he declared Henry and Anne’s marriage valid. Anne was crowned at Westminster Abbey on June 1, 1533.

Anne was pregnant three times but only gave birth to one live child.

• Elizabeth I, Queen of England (September 7, 1533 – March 24, 1603), unmarried, no issue
• Stillborn son (August/September 1534)
• Miscarried son (January 29, 1536)

The loss of the last son sealed Anne’s fate. Henry was determined to be rid of her, and Thomas Cromwell engineered her fall and execution. Many historians believe that the case charging Anne with adultery with her brother George Boleyn and four other men was completely fabricated. Anne was arrested on May 2, 1536, and taken to the Tower of London. On May 14, 1536, Thomas Cranmer declared her marriage to Henry was null and void. Her trial occurred at the Tower on May 15, 1536, and she was found guilty of adultery, incest, and high treason. On May 18, 1536, Anne’s brother and the four other men were executed. Anne was beheaded on Tower Green on May 19, 1536, by a headman from Calais, France who used a sword rather than an axe.

Wife Three: Jane Seymour

Sometime in early 1536, Henry VIII began to show an interest in Jane Seymour, maid of honor to both Catherine of Aragon and Anne Boleyn. Daughter of Sir John Seymour and Margery Wentworth, Jane was born around 1508 into a prominent gentry family. During the period of Anne Boleyn’s arrest, trial, and execution, Jane left the court and stayed at the family home, Wolf Hall.  As soon as Henry heard the guns at the Tower of London announcing Anne Boleyn’s death, he left for Wolf Hall. Jane and Henry were betrothed the next day and on May 30, 1536, they were married by Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury in a private ceremony held in the Queen’s Closet at Whitehall Palace. Early in 1537, Jane became pregnant and on October 12, 1537, she gave Henry his much-longed-for son.

• Edward VI, King of England (October 12, 1537 – July 6, 1553), unmarried, no issue

The King’s joy was short-lived. On October 17, 1537, Jane’s condition deteriorated and she was given the last rites.   She died at Hampton Court Palace on October 24, 1537, most likely from puerperal fever or childbed fever, a bacterial infection.

Fourth Wife: Anne of Cleves

After Jane’s death, Henry’s ambassadors to other courts were instructed to make inquiries about a possible fourth bride. Henry remained a widower for over two years and his fourth marriage was to prove the shortest of his six marriages. Anne of Cleves was born in 1515 in Düsseldorf, now in Germany. The Duchy of Cleves was a state of the Holy Roman Empire, and encompassed parts of present-day Germany and the Netherlands. Anne was the daughter of Johann III, Duke of Cleves and Maria of Jülich-Berg.  Anne’s brother Wilhelm was the reigning Duke of Cleves. After seeing Hans Holbein’s portrait of Anne (above) and being urged on by his chief minister Thomas Cromwell, Henry agreed to the marriage.

When Henry met Anne, he said, “She is nothing so fair as she hath been reported.” Henry urged Cromwell to find a legal way to avoid the marriage but, by this point, doing so was impossible. Henry turned on Cromwell as did Cromwell’s enemies, leading to his downfall. Thomas Cromwell was arrested, charged with treason and heresy, and executed on July 28, 1540.

Henry went forward with the wedding on January 6, 1540, at the Palace of Placentia in Greenwich, London by Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury. Henry confided to Cromwell that he had not consummated the marriage, saying, “I liked her before not well, but now I like her much worse.” On July 9, 1540, the marriage was annulled on the grounds of non-consummation. Anne received a generous settlement, including Richmond Palace and the Boleyns’ former home Hever Castle, and was referred to as “the King’s Beloved Sister.” She was invited to court and was given precedence over all English women except the King’s wife and daughters.

Anne was the longest surviving of all Henry VIII’s wives. She survived long enough to see the coronation of Henry’s daughter Mary I. Anne died on July 16, 1557, two months before her forty-second birthday, and was buried at Westminster Abbey.

Fifth Wife: Catherine Howard

Catherine Howard was born in about 1520, the daughter of Lord Edmund Howard and Joyce Culpepper. As the mother of Anne Boleyn, Catherine’s father was the child of Thomas Howard, 2nd Duke of Norfolk. Therefore Catherine was the first cousin of Anne Boleyn and the niece of Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk. After a rather lax upbringing in the household of her grandmother, the Dowager Duchess of Norfolk, Catherine’s uncle, the 3rd Duke of Norfolk, found a place for her in the household of Henry’s fourth wife Anne of Cleves.

Being was disinterested in Anne of Cleves, Catherine quickly caught Henry VIII’s eye. Catherine, well aware of the King’s interest, set out to captivate him. Her relatives encouraged her scheming and soon the King was showering favors upon Catherine. On the day after the annulment of his marriage to Anne of Cleves, Henry was urged by his council, headed by Catherine’s uncle, to marry again “for the comfort of the realm.” Henry and Catherine were married at Hampton Court Palace on July 28, 1540.

For a while, Henry’s marriage seemed to rejuvenate him. However, young Catherine found no joy in a husband who was old, physically gross, and repugnant. Catherine began affairs with Francis Dereham and Thomas Culpepper, two young men whom she had affairs with while in the Dowager Duchess of Norfolk’s household. Jane Boleyn, one of Catherine’s ladies-in-waiting and the widow of George Boleyn, executed for supposedly having an affair with his sister Anne Boleyn, aided and abetted Catherine in these affairs. Jane had testified, most likely falsely, against her husband and sister-in-law. An informer told the council about Catherine’s affairs.

Catherine was arrested and imprisoned at Syon Abbey where she remained throughout the winter of 1541 – 1542. Francis Dereham and Thomas Culpepper were executed on December 10, 1541. Catherine was taken to the Tower of London on February 10, 1542, and was beheaded there, along with Jane Boleyn, on February 13, 1542.

Sixth Wife: Catherine Parr

King Henry VIII now required a nurse rather than a wife. He had become obese and needed to be moved around with the help of mechanical devices. He was covered with painful, pus-filled boils and probably suffered from gout. His obesity and other medical problems can be traced to the jousting accident in 1536, in which he suffered a leg wound that never healed. The jousting accident is believed to have caused Henry’s mood swings, which may have had a dramatic effect on his personality and temperament. Upon hearing good reports about the twice-widowed Catherine, Lady Latimer (born Catherine Parr) who cared for her elderly second husband John Neville, 3rd Baron Latimer, Henry married her on July 12, 1543, at Hampton Court Palace. Catherine proved to be a good nurse to Henry and a kind stepmother to his three children. She was influential in Henry’s passing of the Third Succession Act in 1543 which restored his daughters, Mary and Elizabeth, to the line of succession to the throne.

Catherine’s religious views were reform Protestant, in the sense of the definition of the word Protestant today. Her religious views incited a pro-Catholic/anti-Reform Protestant faction led by Stephen Gardiner, Bishop of Winchester and Thomas Wriothesley, Lord Chancellor, to bring a charge of heresy against her in 1546. Catherine found out about this and eloquently pleaded her case successfully to Henry.

After Henry died in 1547, Catherine married Thomas Seymour, uncle of King Edward VI. In August of 1548, Catherine and Seymour had a daughter, but tragically Catherine died on September 5, 1548, of puerperal fever (childbed fever). Her daughter appears to have died young.

Illegitimate Son

King Henry VIII acknowledged only one illegitimate child. His mother was Henry’s mistress Elizabeth Blount.

• Henry FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Richmond and Somerset (June 15, 1519 – July 23, 1536), married Lady Mary Howard, of Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk, no issue

Some Events of Henry VIII’s Reign

• Battle of the Spurs, 1513: Henry invaded France and defeated the French army
• Battle of Flodden, 1513: The English army defeated the Scots army, James IV, King of Scots, the husband of Henry’s sister Margaret is killed
• Treaty of London, 1518: a non-aggression pact between the major European nations
• Field of the Cloth of Gold, 1520: Henry meets François I, King of France near Calais

• Publication of Defense of the Seven Sacraments, 1521: written by Henry in response to Martin Luther’s attack on indulgences
• Fidei Defensor (Defender of the Faith), 1521: Pope Leo X rewards Henry for writing Defense of the Seven Sacraments with the title Fidei Defensor (Defender of the Faith); revoked following the king’s break with the Catholic Church in the 1530s, but re-awarded to his heir by the English Parliament
• First Succession Act, 1533: makes the yet unborn Princess Elizabeth, daughter of King Henry VIII by Anne Boleyn, Henry’s heir and makes Princess Mary, the King’s daughter by Catherine of Aragon, a bastard
• Act of Supremacy, 1534: Henry is declared the supreme head of the Church of England
• Treasons Act, 1534: made it high treason, punishable by death, to refuse the Oath of Supremacy
• Dissolution of the Lesser Monasteries Act, 1536: provided for administrative and legal processes between 1536 and 1541 by which Henry VIII disbanded Catholic monasteries, priories, convents, and friaries in England, Wales, and Ireland, appropriated their income, disposed of their assets, and provided for their former members and functions
• Second Succession Act, 1536: declared Henry’s children by Jane to be next in the line of succession and declared both Mary and Elizabeth illegitimate and excluded from the succession
• Rough Wooing (December 1543 – March 1551): conflict between Scotland and England in an attempt to force the Scots to agree to a marriage between his son Edward and the infant Mary, Queen of Scots
• Third Succession Act, 1543: returned Henry’s daughters Mary and Elizabeth to the line of succession behind their half-brother Edward
• Henry founded Trinity College, Cambridge, 1546

Henry’s health issues certainly hastened his death. As he lay dying in January of 1547 at the age of 55, he was able to ponder aloud on his misdoings. After some urging, he sent for Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury, but when he arrived, Henry could no longer talk and was only able to press Cranmer’s hand when asked to give a sign that he trusted in God. King Henry VIII died on January 28, 1547, at Whitehall Palace in London, England. The news of his death was withheld for three days, while the council debated the fate of Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk who had been held at the Tower of London, under a death sentence, since the fiasco with his niece Catherine Howard. The council decided to spare him. King Henry VIII was buried at St. George’s Chapel at Windsor Castle in Windsor, England next to Jane Seymour, the wife that gave him a son. Henry had made plans for a magnificent tomb but they were never carried out. In 1649, the remains of the beheaded King Charles I were buried in Henry and Jane’s vault.

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