Category Archives: Former Monarchies

Marie of Hesse-Kassel, Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz

by Scott Mehl
© Unofficial Royalty 2018

Marie of Hesse-Kassel, Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz

Princess Marie of Hesse-Kassel was the wife of Grand Duke Georg of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. She was born Princess Marie Wilhelmine Friederike on January 21, 1796, in Hanau, Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel, now in Hesse, Germany. She was the second daughter of Prince Friedrich of Hesse-Kassel and Princess Karoline of Nassau-Usingen. Marie had seven siblings:

Georg of Mecklenburg-Strelitz

On August 12, 1817, Marie married Grand Duke Georg of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, in Kassel. They had four children:

Marie’s copy of Raphael’s ‘Christ Falling on the Way to Calvary’, painted in 1856, used on the altar at the town church in Neustrelitz. photo: Von Concord – Eigenes Werk, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=20264996

A talented painter, Marie often painted copies of famous paintings. Many were used as altarpieces in churches within Mecklenburg, including the town churches in Schönberg and Neustrelitz – both of which still exist. Another, which was used in the Johanniterkirche in Mirow, was destroyed when the church burned in 1945.

Marie in her later years. source: Wikipedia

Having survived her husband by just three months, the Dowager Grand Duchess Marie died in Neustrelitz, Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, now in Střelice u Stoda, the Czech Republic on December 30, 1880. She is buried in the New Crypt at the Johanniterkirche in Mirow, Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, now in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Germany.

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Mecklenburg-Strelitz Resources at Unofficial Royalty

Georg, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz

by Scott Mehl  © Unofficial Royalty 2018

Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz: The Duchy of Mecklenburg was divided and partitioned a number of times over the centuries.  In 1701, the last division created the Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin and the Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. In 1815, the Congress of Vienna recognized both Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Strelitz as grand duchies. Carl II, Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz became the first Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz.

On, February 23, 1918, Grand Duke Adolf Friedrich VI of Mecklenburg-Schwerin died by suicide. The heir presumptive was serving with the Russian military and had made it known that he wished to renounce his rights of succession. Friedrich Franz IV, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, served as Regent for the Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. The regency lasted only nine months, as on November 14, 1918, Friedrich Franz IV was forced to abdicate as Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, as well as the Regent of the Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. Today the territory encompassing the Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz is in the German state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern.

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Georg, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz; Credit – Wikipedia

Grand Duke Georg was born in Hanover, Electorate of Hanover, now in the German state of Lower Saxony, on August 12, 1779, to the future Carl II, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz and his first wife, Friederike of Hesse-Darmstadt.

Georg had nine siblings. His mother three days after giving birth to her last child from childbirth complications:

Georg had one half-sibling from his father’s second marriage to his mother’s sister Charlotte of Hesse-Darmstadt who, like her sister also died from childbirth complications.

  • Karl (1785-1837) – unmarried

Georg’s early years were spent in Hanover, where his father served as Governor-General. Following the death of his stepmother Charlotte, the family moved to Darmstadt, Landgraviate of Hesse-Darmstadt, now in the German state of Hesse, where Georg and his siblings were raised primarily by their maternal grandmother. As second in line for the ducal throne, Georg was educated with the expectation of one day assuming the throne. In 1794, his childless uncle, Duke Adolf Friedrich IV, died. Georg’s father became the reigning Duke, while Georg took on the title of Hereditary Prince. Georg began studying at the University of Rostock, in Rostock, the Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, now in the German state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, before moving to Berlin, Kingdom of Prussia, now in the German state of Brandenburg, to continue his education. He later spent two years traveling before returning to become involved in the running of the government.

In 1807, Georg represented his father in Paris to negotiate the duchy’s entry into the Confederation of the Rhine. He again represented his father seven years later at the Congress of Vienna. Through his efforts, Mecklenburg-Strelitz was raised to a Grand Duchy, with Georg becoming the Hereditary Grand Duke. He became Grand Duke on November 6, 1816, upon his father’s death.

Marie of Hesse-Kassel; Credit – Wikipedia

The following year, on August 12, 1817, Georg married Princess Marie of Hesse-Kassel. She was the daughter of Landgrave Freidrich of Hesse-Kassel and Princess Caroline of Nassau-Usingen. Georg and Marie had four children:

Coming to the grand ducal throne, Georg found Mecklenburg-Strelitz in great debt and in need of much rebuilding. To eliminate much of the debt, he sold several towns to Prussia that had been given to the Grand Duchy at the Congress of Vienna. He abolished serfdom in 1820 and worked to raise the education standards, building schools and instituting compulsory education. He made vast improvements to the infrastructure which would help to energize the grand duchy’s economy.

After a reign of nearly 54 years, Grand Duke Georg died in Neustrelitz, Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, now in the German state of  Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, on September 6, 1860, at the age of 81. He is buried in the New Crypt at the Johanniterkirche in Mirow, Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, now in the German state of  Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. He was succeeded by his son, Friedrich Wilhelm.

This article is the intellectual property of Unofficial Royalty and is NOT TO BE COPIED, EDITED, OR POSTED IN ANY FORM ON ANOTHER WEBSITE under any circumstances. It is permissible to use a link that directs to Unofficial Royalty.

Mecklenburg-Strelitz Resources at Unofficial Royalty

Charlotte of Hesse-Darmstadt, Duchess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz; Credit – Wikipedia

by Scott Mehl  © Unofficial Royalty 2018

Charlotte of Hesse-Darmstadt; Duchess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz; Credit – Wikipedia

Charlotte Wilhelmine Christiane Marie of Hesse-Darmstadt was the second wife of the future Grand Duke Carl II of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. She was born in Darmstadt, Landgraviate of Hesse-Darmstadt, now in Hesse, Germany, on November 5, 1755, the second daughter of Prince Georg Wilhelm of Hesse-Darmstadt and Countess Maria Luise Albertine of Leiningen-Falkenburg-Dagsburg. Charlotte had eight siblings:

Carl of Mecklenburg-Strelitz; Credit – Wikipedia

After a brief engagement to the future Duke Wilhelm of Oldenburg ended due to his mental illness, Charlotte married the future Grand Duke Carl II of Mecklenburg-Strelitz in Darmstadt on September 28, 1784. Carl had previously been married to her older sister, Friederike, who had died after giving birth to her tenth child two years earlier. Charlotte and Carl had one son:

  • Carl (1785 -1837) – unmarried

Twelve days after giving birth to her son, Charlotte died of complications from childbirth in Hanover, Electorate of Hanover, now in Lower Saxony, Germany. She was buried in the New Crypt of the Johanniterkirche in Mirow, Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, now in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Germany

This article is the intellectual property of Unofficial Royalty and is NOT TO BE COPIED, EDITED, OR POSTED IN ANY FORM ON ANOTHER WEBSITE under any circumstances. It is permissible to use a link that directs to Unofficial Royalty.

Mecklenburg-Strelitz Resources at Unofficial Royalty

Friederike of Hesse-Darmstadt, Duchess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz

by Scott Mehl  © Unofficial Royalty 2018

Friederike of Hesse-Darmstadt, Duchess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz; Credit – Wikipedia

Friederike Karoline Luise of Hesse-Darmstadt was the first wife of the future Grand Duke Carl II of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. She was born in Darmstadt, Landgraviate of Hesse-Darmstadt, now in Hesse, Germany, on August 20, 1752, the eldest daughter of Prince Georg Wilhelm of Hesse-Darmstadt and Countess Maria Luise Albertine of Leiningen-Falkenburg-Dagsburg. Friederike had eight siblings:

Carl of Mecklenburg-Strelitz; Credit – Wikipedia

On September 18, 1768, in Darmstadt, Friederike married Carl of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. At the time, he was heir-presumptive to his brother, the Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. Friederike and Carl had ten children:

The New Crypt at the Johanniterkirche. photo: Von Peter Schmelzle – Eigenes Werk (Eigenes Foto), CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=4816015

On May 22, 1782, three days after giving birth to her last child, Friederike died from complications of childbirth in the Electorate of Hanover, now in Lower Saxony, Germany. She is buried in the New Crypt at the Johanniterkirche in Mirow, Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, now in the German state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Germany. Two years later, her husband married her younger sister Charlotte, who also died in childbirth. He later became the first Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz in 1815.

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Mecklenburg-Strelitz Resources at Unofficial Royalty

Carl II, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz

by Scott Mehl  © Unofficial Royalty 2018

Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz: The Duchy of Mecklenburg was divided and partitioned a number of times over the centuries.  In 1701, the last division created the Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin and the Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. In 1815, the Congress of Vienna recognized both Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Strelitz as grand duchies. Carl II, Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz became the first Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz.

On, February 23, 1918, Grand Duke Adolf Friedrich VI of Mecklenburg-Schwerin died by suicide. The heir presumptive was serving with the Russian military and had made it known that he wished to renounce his rights of succession. Friedrich Franz IV, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, served as Regent for the Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. The regency lasted only nine months, as on November 14, 1918, Friedrich Franz IV was forced to abdicate as Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, as well as the Regent of the Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. Today the territory encompassing the Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz is in the German state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern.

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Carl II, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz; Source – Wikipedia

Carl II, the first Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz was born Duke Carl Ludwig Friedrich Of Mecklenburg on October 10, 1741, at Mirow Castle in Mirow, Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, now in the German state of  Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. He was the sixth of ten children of Duke Karl Ludwig of Mecklenburg, Prince of Mirow and Princess Elisabeth Albertine of Saxe-Hildburghausen. His siblings were:

Carl was raised in Mirow and received his education under the direction of Reverend Gottlob Burchard Genzmer. As the second son of the heir-presumptive to the Dukedom of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, there was little expectation that Carl would one day take the throne. However, his father died in June 1752, and several months later, his uncle, the reigning Duke, died in December. Carl’s elder brother became Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, and Carl was now the heir-presumptive.

In 1755, Carl left home and began serving in the Hanoverian army, in which he received a commission at just four years old. He served several years before taking a year off to study in Switzerland. His ties to Hanover strengthened in 1761 when his sister married King George III of Great Britain, who was also the Elector of Hanover. Carl traveled to Portugal in 1762  to help reorganize the Portuguese Army. Upon his return in 1763, Carl was promoted to the rank of Lieutenant General in the Hanoverian Army, and in 1776, he was appointed Governor-General of Hanover by his brother-in-law.

Friederike of Hesse-Darmstadt, Duchess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz; Credit – Wikipedia

On September 18, 1768, in Darmstadt, Landgraviate of Hesse-Darmstadt, now in the German state of Hesse, Carl married Princess Friederike of Hesse-Darmstadt, the daughter of Georg Wilhelm of Hesse-Darmstadt and Maria Luise Albertine of Leiningen-Falkenburg-Dagsburg. Carl and Friederike had ten children:

Charlotte of Hesse-Darmstadt; Duchess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz; Credit – Wikipedia

Friederike died due to childbirth complications shortly after giving birth to their tenth child in May 1782. Two years later, Carl married Friederike’s younger sister Charlotte on September 28, 1784, in Darmstadt. Charlotte also died due to childbirth complications shortly after giving birth to their only child:

  • Karl (1785-1837) – unmarried

In 1785, Carl retired from military service, and stepped down as Governor-General of Hanover, receiving a generous pension and a promotion to the rank of Field Marshal. He took his family to Darmstadt to be near his wives’ family, and spent several years traveling to visit his family both in Neustrelitz, Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, now in the German state of  Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, and Great Britain. In 1794, he was appointed President of the Imperial Credit Commission, tasked with avoiding the pending bankruptcy in the Duchy of Saxe-Hildburghausen. This role would be short-lived, as his brother died in June 1794, and Carl returned to Neustrelitz to take up his role as the new Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz.

As Duke, Carl established a police force, promoted agriculture, reduced the number of districts within the duchy, and introduced compulsory education. The peaceful duchy was thrown into turmoil when Napoleon’s forces occupied the duchy in 1806. While many other German rulers were forced into exile, Carl’s position as the brother of the British Queen, and father of the Prussian Queen allowed him to remain in Strelitz during the occupation. He was later forced to join Napoleon’s Confederation of the Rhine and fight with the French forces. However, Carl later began to rally the people of Mecklenburg-Strelitz to fight against the French Emperor and helped to bring about his defeat. In recognition of Carl’s efforts, the Duchy received several territorial gains at the Congress of Vienna in 1814-1815. In June 1815, thanks primarily to the efforts of Carl’s son and heir, Mecklenburg-Strelitz was raised to a Grand Duchy with Carl becoming the first Grand Duke.

The Johanniterkirche in Mirow. photo: by Thomas Kohler – originally posted to Flickr as Kirche Mirow, CC BY-SA 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=12084832

At the same time he became Grand Duke, Carl handed over most of his powers to his son, while remaining head of state. The following summer, he traveled to visit and spend time with his family throughout the German monarchies, where he developed an inflammation of the lungs. Despite appearing to recover, he fell ill again that autumn and died in Neustrelitz, Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, now in the German state of  Mecklenburg-Vorpommern on November 6, 1816. His funeral was held eight days later in Mirow, Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, now in the German state of  Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, where he was buried in the New Crypt of the Johanniterkirche (link in German).

This article is the intellectual property of Unofficial Royalty and is NOT TO BE COPIED, EDITED, OR POSTED IN ANY FORM ON ANOTHER WEBSITE under any circumstances. It is permissible to use a link that directs to Unofficial Royalty.

Mecklenburg-Strelitz Resources at Unofficial Royalty

Hedwig Elizabeth Charlotte of Holstein-Gottorp, Queen of Sweden and Norway

by Susan Flantzer © Unofficial Royalty 2018

Hedwig Elizabeth Charlotte of Holstein-Gottorp, Queen of Sweden and Norway; Credit – Wikipedia

Known for her invaluable diary which described the Swedish royal court from 1775-1817, Hedwig Elisabeth Charlotte of Holstein-Gottorp was born on March 22, 1759, in Eutin, Duchy of Oldenburg, now in the German state of Schleswig-Holstein. Her parents were Friedrich August I, Duke of Oldenburg and Princess Ulrike Friederike Wilhelmine of Hesse-Kassel. She was a niece of King Adolf Fredrik of Sweden, the father of her future husband, and like her husband, a first cousin of Empress Catherine II of Russia (the Great).

Hedwig Elisabeth Charlotte had two older siblings. Due to mental illness, her brother was Duke of Oldenburg and then Grand Duke beginning in 1815, in name only. His cousin Peter, Prince-Bishop of Lübeck, was regent throughout his entire reign and succeeded him.

Hedwig Elisabeth Charlotte first met her cousin Prince Carl of Sweden, second son of King Adolf Fredrik of Sweden and Louisa Ulrika of Prussia and brother of King Gustav III of Sweden, when he visited Eutin in 1770. In 1766, King Gustav III married Princess Sophia Magdalena of Denmark. In 1772, the marriage still had not been consummated and Gustav wanted to give the task of providing an heir to his brother. Hedwig Elisabeth Charlotte’s name was mentioned as a possible bride for Carl. The marriage was arranged in 1772, but the wedding was delayed because of the bride’s young age.

Carl of Sweden; Credit – Wikipedia

The couple was married by proxy in Wismar, a German city in the possession of Sweden, on June 22, 1774, with Baron Carl Otto von Höpken standing in for the groom. Hedwig Elisabeth Charlotte traveled to Sweden and arrived on July 1, 1774. On July 7, 1774, she made her entry into Stockholm on the Vasaorden, a kungaslup, Swedish for a ceremonial rowboat, built for King Gustav III in 1744. It was destroyed by fire in 1921 and an exact replica was built in 1923 which was used at the wedding celebrations of Crown Princess Victoria of Sweden and Daniel Westling in 2010.

Ceremonial entry of Hedwig Elisabeth Charlotte into Stockholm by Pehr Hilleström; Credit – Wikipedia

The Vasaorden at the wedding of Crown Princess Victoria in 2010; Photo Credit – Av Atlantic Chef – Eget arbete, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=10686218

After her ceremonial arrival in Stockholm, Hedwig Elisabeth Charlotte was formally presented to Queen Sophia Magdalena, Dowager Queen Louisa Ulrika, members of the Council, their wives, and ambassadors. The second wedding took place the same evening at the Royal Chapel in the Royal Palace of Stockholm followed by a masked ball in the Royal Garden.

Wedding dress of Hedwig Elisabeth Charlotte; Credit – Wikipedia

In July 1775, there were signs that Hedwig Elisabeth Charlotte was pregnant. It was hoped that the succession problem would be solved and prayers were held in the churches. In mid-September, preparations were made for the royal birth expected in October. However, on October 24, 1775, it was determined that there was no pregnancy. The news of the false pregnancy made King Gustav III decide to consummate his marriage and provide an heir to the throne himself, the future King Gustav IV Adolf, born in 1778.

Their marriage was distant and both Hedwig Elisabeth Charlotte and Carl had extramarital affairs. From 1783, Hedwig Elisabeth Charlotte had a long-term relationship with Count Carl Piper, referred to as her lover in her diary. Among her other alleged lovers was Count Axel von Fersen, the favorite of Marie Antoinette, Queen of France. Hedwig Elisabeth Charlotte eventually had two children – one stillborn and one who lived only six days. Rumors of Hedwig Elisabeth Charlotte’s alleged affairs were noted during her pregnancy in 1797.

  • Lovisa Hedvig (July 2, 1797), stillborn
  • Carl Adolf, Duke of Värmland (July 4, 1798 – July 10, 1798), died in early infancy

On March 16, 1792, King Gustav III was shot by Jacob Johan Anckarström during a masked ball at the Royal Opera House in Stockholm. Thirteen days later, on March 29, 1792, King Gustav III died of his wounds at the Royal Palace of Stockholm at the age of 46. His 13-year-old son succeeded him as King Gustav IV Adolf. Hedwig Elisabeth Charlotte’s husband Prince Carl, the young king’s uncle, served as regent until 1796.  Carl was unwilling or incapable of managing state affairs and entrusted the powers of government to his confidant Count Gustaf Adolf Reuterholm.

In 1805, King Gustav IV Adolf joined the Third Coalition against Napoleon. His campaign went poorly and the French occupied Swedish Pomerania. In 1807, Russia made peace with France. A year later, Russia invaded Finland, ten ruled by Sweden, attempting to force Gustav Adolf to join Napoleon’s Continental System. In just a few months, almost all of Finland was lost to Russia. In 1809, Sweden surrendered the eastern third of Sweden to Russia, and the autonomous Grand Principality of Finland within the Russian Empire was established.

Provoked by the disaster in Finland, a group of noblemen started a coup d’état that deposed King Gustav IV Adolf. On March 13, 1809, a group of conspirators broke into the royal apartments at Gripsholm Castle and imprisoned Gustav Adolf and his family. Gustav IV Adolf abdicated on March 29, 1809, thinking if he did so, his son would become king. However, on May 10, 1809, the Riksdag proclaimed that all members of Gustav Adolf’s family had forfeited their rights to the throne. After accepting a new liberal constitution, Hedwig Elisabeth Charlotte’s husband Prince Carl was proclaimed King Carl XIII of Sweden on June 6, 1809. In December 1809, King Gustav IV Adolf and his family were sent into exile.

Hedwig Elisabeth Charlotte in 1814; Credit – Wikipedia

After the coup, Hedwig Elisabeth Charlotte stated, “I do not wish to be a Queen!” She had a deep affection for Frederica of Baden, the wife of Gustav IV Adolf, and found it embarrassing to be taking her place. She told her husband that she would become his adviser and confidante, but that she would keep away from the matters of the state. During Carl’s reign, Hedwig Elisabeth Charlotte visited him in his bedroom every morning to talk to him. She was crowned with Carl on June 29, 1809.

Carl was 60-years-old when he became king. He was childless and not in good health, and it was necessary to find a successor. All of King Gustav IV Adolf’s descendants had been declared ineligible to succeed to the Swedish throne, but there was a movement, the Gustavian Party, which supported the deposed king’s son, the former Crown Prince Gustav, to be acknowledged as heir to the throne. Hedwig Elisabeth Charlotte supported this movement. However, 41-year-old unmarried, childless Prince Carl August of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg was chosen Crown Prince of Sweden.

In November 1809, King Carl XIII had a stroke and was unable to participate in the government. Hedwig Elisabeth Charlotte informally took his place on the Council. The Gustavian Party asked her to accept the post of regent, exclude the newly appointed Crown Prince, and adopt the former Crown Prince Gustav as heir. She declined the offer to be regent, and the coup never took place. On May 28, 1810, Carl August, Crown Prince of Sweden died from a stroke. There were rumors that the Gustavian Party had poisoned him.

The Swedes had the idea to offer the position of Crown Prince to one of Napoleon’s Marshals. Jean Baptiste Bernadotte, appointed Marshal of France in 1804, was well-liked in Sweden, particularly because of his considerate treatment of Swedish prisoners during the recent war with Denmark. In addition, he was related to Napoleon through his wife Désirée Clary, whose sister Julie Clary was married to Napoleon’s brother, Joseph Bonaparte. Désirée had previously been engaged to Napoleon. Bernadotte already had a son Oscar, born in 1799, who could continue the succession. On August 21, 1810, the Swedish Riksdag of the Estates elected Bernadotte as Crown Prince. He arrived in Stockholm in November 1810 and was formally adopted by King Carl XIII, taking the name Carl Johan, and converted from Roman Catholicism to Lutheranism. He would become King Carl XIV Johan, the first monarch of the House of Bernadotte, which still reigns in Sweden.

Bernadotte made a good impression on Hedwig Elisabeth Charlotte. He asked her for advice and discussed the matters of state with her. In 1811, she was asked by the council to convince King Carl XIII to appoint Bernadotte regent and convince Bernadotte to accept the post, which she did.

In 1814, after the Napoleonic Wars, Denmark was forced to cede Norway to Sweden. Unlike Norway’s union with Denmark, this was a personal union under a single sovereign, and Norway remained an independent state with its own constitution.  Hedwig Elisabeth Charlotte’s husband then also reigned as King Karl II of Norway.

Hedwig Elisabeth Charlotte’s most lasting legacy was her diary. It was written in the form of unsent letters to her friend Countess Sophie von Fersen, sister of Count Axel von Fersen. The letters describe the Swedish royal court from 1775 – 1817 and are an important source for historical research. Besides dealing with gossip and social events of the court, Hedwig Elizabeth Charlotte also wrote about the French Revolution, the assassination of Gustav III, the Napoleonic Wars, and the deposing of Gustav IV Adolf.

King Carl XIII died on February 5, 1818, at the Royal Palace of Stockholm at the age of 69 and was buried at Riddarholmen Church in Stockholm. Hedwig Elisabeth Charlotte’s health had begun to worsen in 1815. After her husband’s death, she said she would not be able to survive without him. On June 20, 1818, after a private dinner with the new King Carl XIV Johan, she went to her room to write, fainted, and died at the age of 59. She was buried at Riddarholmen Church in Stockholm.

Tomb of Hedwig Elisabeth Charlotte; Photo Credit – www.finagrave.com

Works Cited

  • En.wikipedia.org. (2017). Hedvig Elisabeth Charlotte of Holstein-Gottorp. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hedvig_Elisabeth_Charlotte_of_Holstein-Gottorp [Accessed 25 Sep. 2017].
  • Sv.wikipedia.org. (2017). Hedvig Elisabet Charlotta av Holstein-Gottorp. [online] Available at: https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hedvig_Elisabet_Charlotta_av_Holstein-Gottorp [Accessed 25 Sep. 2017].
  •  Unofficial Royalty. (2017). King Carl III of Sweden. [online] Available at: https://www.unofficialroyalty.com/king-karl-xiii-of-sweden/ [Accessed 25 Sep. 2017].

Frederica of Baden, Queen of Sweden

by Susan Flantzer  © Unofficial Royalty 2017

Frederica of Baden, Queen of Sweden; Credit – Wikipedia

The wife of King Gustav IV Adolph of Sweden who was deposed after a 17-year reign, Princess Friederike (Frederica) Dorothea Wilhelmina of Baden, was born on March 12, 1781, at Karlsruhe Palace in Karlsruhe, Duchy of Baden, now in the German state of Baden-Württemberg. Frederica was the fourth of the six daughters and the fourth of the eight children of Karl Ludwig, Hereditary Prince of Baden and Amalie of Hesse-Darmstadt. Her father predeceased his father so he never became Grand Duke of Baden.

Frederica had seven siblings which included an empress, a queen, a grand duchess, a duchess, and a grand duke. Collectively, Frederica and her siblings are ancestors of several royal families.

Gustav Adolf and Frederica, circa 1797-1800; Credit – Wikipedia

The princesses of Baden were renowned for their beauty. The marriage of Frederica’s 14-year-old sister Louise to the future Alexander I, Emperor of Russia opened the door to prized marriages for her sisters. After having issues with some prospective brides, 19-year-old King Gustav IV Adolph of Sweden, son of King Gustav III of Sweden and Sophia Magdalena of Denmark, decided to arrange his own marriage. During a 1796 visit to Russia, he met the former Louise of Baden who was married to the future Alexander I, Emperor of Russia. Gustav Adolf thought Louise was beautiful and expected the same of her sister Frederica. He visited 16-year-old Frederica and her parents in August 1797 and immediately Gustav Adolf and Frederica became engaged. On October 6, 1797, Frederica of Baden was married by proxy to King Gustav IV Adolf in Stralsund in Swedish Pomerania with Swedish Baron Evert Taube standing in for the king. Baron Taube accompanied Frederica to Sweden where a second wedding ceremony was held on October 31, 1797, in the Royal Chapel at the Royal Palace of Stockholm.

The couple had five children:

Coming from a small, strict, Protestant German court, Frederica found it difficult to adapt to the pleasure-loving Swedish court. By nature, she was shy and isolated herself with her courtiers, girls the same age as her. Her mother-in-law, born Sophia Magdalena of Denmark, treated her with kindness because she remembered all too well how poorly her mother-in-law had treated her. After the birth of her son in 1799, Frederica became more comfortable in her position as queen.

The king and queen preferred a quiet family life with a small entourage at Haga Palace or Gripsholm Castle. Frederica was a skillful clavichord player, enjoyed the company of her small circle of friends, and devoted herself to the upbringing of her children. She kept in close correspondence with her family. In 1801, her parents visited Sweden after having been in Russia to see her sister. However, the visit ended unhappily as her father died due to a coach accident during the visit.

In 1805, Gustav Adolf joined the Third Coalition against Napoleon. His campaign went poorly and the French occupied Swedish Pomerania. In 1807, Russia made peace with France. A year later, Russia invaded Finland, which was ruled by Sweden, attempting to force Gustav Adolf to join Napoleon’s Continental System. In just a few months, almost all of Finland was lost to Russia. In 1809, Sweden surrendered the eastern third of Sweden to Russia, and the autonomous Grand Principality of Finland within the Russian Empire was established.

Provoked by the disaster in Finland, a group of noblemen started a coup d’état that deposed King Gustav IV Adolf. On March 13, 1809, a group of conspirators led by Carl Johan Adlercreutz broke into the royal apartments at Gripsholm Castle and imprisoned Gustav Adolf and his family. Prince Karl, Gustav Adolf’s uncle, agreed to form a provisional government, and the Swedish parliament, the Riksdag, gave their approval for the coup. Gustav Adolf abdicated on March 29, 1809, thinking if he did so, his son would become king. However, on May 10, 1809, the Riksdag proclaimed that all members of Gustav Adolf’s family had forfeited their rights to the throne. After accepting a new liberal constitution, Prince Karl was proclaimed King Karl XIII of Sweden on June 6, 1809. In December 1809, Gustav Adolf and his family were sent to the Grand Duchy of Baden.

Frederica in exile; Credit – Wikipedia

Gustav Adolf and Frederica settled in Frederica’s home country, the Grand Duchy of Baden. However, the couple became incompatible and divorced in 1812. In the divorce settlement, Gustav Adolf renounced all his assets in favor of his mother and his children. He also renounced the custody and guardianship of his children. Two years later, Frederica placed her children under the guardianship of her brother-in-law Alexander I, Emperor of Russia.

Frederica settled in Bruchsal Castle in Baden. She acquired several other residences in Baden and a country villa, Villamont, near Lausanne, Switzerland. Frederica spent most of her time at her brother’s court in Karlsruhe, but she also traveled around Germany, Switzerland, and Italy, using the name Countess Itterburg after a ruin in Hesse she had acquired. Frederica turned down two proposals of marriage, one from the widower of her sister, Friedrich Wilhelm, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, and the other from King Friedrich Wilhelm III of Prussia.

During her final years, Frederica was often ill. She died in Lausanne, Switzerland of heart disease on September 25, 1826, at the age of only 45. Frederica was buried at her family’s burial site, Schlosskirche St. Michael in Pforzheim, then in the Duchy of Baden, now in Baden-Württemberg, Germany.

Schlosskirche St. Michael; Photo Credit – Wikipedia

This article is the intellectual property of Unofficial Royalty and is NOT TO BE COPIED, EDITED, OR POSTED IN ANY FORM ON ANOTHER WEBSITE under any circumstances. It is permissible to use a link that directs to Unofficial Royalty.

Works Cited

  • De.wikipedia.org. (2017). St. Michael (Pforzheim). [online] Available at: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Michael_(Pforzheim) [Accessed 24 Sep. 2017].
  • En.wikipedia.org. (2017). Frederica of Baden. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederica_of_Baden [Accessed 24 Sep. 2017].
  • Fr.wikipedia.org. (2017). Frédérique de Bade. [online] Available at: https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9rique_de_Bade [Accessed 24 Sep. 2017].
  • Sv.wikipedia.org. (2017). Fredrika av Baden. [online] Available at: https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fredrika_av_Baden [Accessed 24 Sep. 2017].

Marie of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, Countess of Flanders

by Susan Flantzer
© Unofficial Royalty 2017

Marie of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, Countess of Flanders; Credit – Wikipedia

Princess Marie of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen was one-half of the couple who secured the future of the Belgian royal dynasty.  Marie Luise Alexandrine Karoline was born on November 17, 1845, at Schloss Sigmaringen, the seat of the Principality of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen now located in Sigmaringen in the German state of Baden-Württemberg.  She was the younger of the two daughters and the youngest of the six children of Sovereign Prince Karl Anton of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, head of the Princely House of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen and Prime Minister of Prussia, and Princess Josephine of Baden, daughter of Grand Duke Karl of Baden.  In 1869, the Sovereign Prince of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen also became the Sovereign Prince of Hohenzollern-Hechingen and assumed the title Prince of Hohenzollern.

Marie had five older siblings:

Marie, seated on the left, and her sister Stephanie, standing, 1858: Photo Credit – Wikipedia

Unlike the Hohenzollerns who ruled in Prussia, Marie’s family was Roman Catholic. She was considered as a wife for the future King Edward VII of the United Kingdom but her religion barred any possibility of marriage as she would not convert to the Church of England.  On April 25, 1867, at St. Hedwig’s Cathedral in Berlin, Kingdom of Prussia, now in the German state of Brandenburg, Marie married Prince Philippe of Belgium, Count of Flanders,  the third son but second surviving son of Leopold I of the Belgians and Marie-Louise of Orléans.

Marie on her wedding day; Photo Credit – Wikipedia

Philippe and Marie had five children:

Philippe and Marie settled in the Palace of the Count of Flanders in Brussels, which Philippe bought and renovated. During the first several years of the couple’s married life, there were several family tragedies. In 1867, Emperor Maximilian of Mexico, the husband of Philippe’s sister Charlotte, was deposed and executed by a firing squad. Charlotte descended into a mental illness that would plague her for the rest of her life. In 1869, ten-year-old Leopold, Duke of Brabant, the only son and heir of Philippe’s brother King Leopold II, fell into a pond, caught pneumonia, and died. Hoping for a crown prince because only males could inherit the throne, Leopold II and his wife had another child, but the long-awaited crown prince did not materialize as the child was a girl.

It was Philippe and Marie who secured the future of the Belgian dynasty. Philippe was the heir presumptive to the Belgian throne until he died in 1905. Philippe’s elder son Baudouin was second in line to the throne until he died in 1891 from influenza. Then Marie and Philippe’s younger son Albert became second in line to the throne. Eventually, Albert succeeded his uncle King Leopold II upon his death in 1909 as King Albert I.

Marie and Philippe, 1880; Credit – Wikipedia

Marie was an accomplished artist and her artwork was exhibited at the Brussels Fair and the World Exhibition of 1893 in Chicago. Her literary salon attracted many authors and was a popular part of Brussels’ social life for forty years.  She was also well known for her charitable work.  Marie gradually took on the role of the first lady of the court after her sister-in-law Queen Marie-Henriette left the court due to marriage problems and her sisters-in-law married. Her husband Philippe died on November 17, 1905, at the age of 68. He was buried at the Church of Our Lady of Laeken in Brussels, Belgium

Marie lived to see her son become King Albert I of Belgium in 1909.  She died in Brussels, Belgium on November 26, 1912, from pneumonia and was buried with her husband at the Church of Our Lady of Laeken.

This article is the intellectual property of Unofficial Royalty and is NOT TO BE COPIED, EDITED, OR POSTED IN ANY FORM ON ANOTHER WEBSITE under any circumstances. It is permissible to use a link that directs to Unofficial Royalty.

Princess Clémentine of Belgium, Princess Napoléon

by Susan Flantzer  © Unofficial Royalty 2017

Princess Clémentine of Belgium, Princess Napoléon; Credit – Wikipedia

Princess Clémentine of Belgium (Clémentine Albertine Marie Léopoldine) was born at the Royal Castle of Laeken in Belgium on July 30, 1872. She was the third of the three daughters and the youngest of the four children of Leopold II, King of the Belgians and Archduchess Marie-Henriette of Austria. In 1869, when Leopold and Marie-Henriette’s only son Leopold died, King Leopold blamed Queen Marie-Henriette for their son’s death. Little Leopold had fallen into a pond, caught pneumonia, and died. Hoping for a crown prince because only males could inherit the throne, Queen Marie-Henriette became pregnant again, but the long-awaited crown prince did not materialize as the child was a girl, Clémentine. Clémentine’s parents completely separated after her birth.

Clémentine had three older siblings:

Even before the death of their brother, Clémentine’s siblings had a difficult childhood. The marriage of their parents started unhappy, remained unhappy, and the couple lived mostly separate lives. King Leopold had many mistresses and he made no real attempt to have a successful marriage. Queen Marie-Henriette was cold and inaccessible. Their mother showed no interest in the children and their father, who was only interested in his business in the Belgian Congo, did not spend time with his daughters.

By the time Clémentine was eight years old, both her sisters had married and she was the only child left at home. She grew up alone under the guidance of governesses who taught her French, German, music, history, and literature. Clémentine had a close relationship with her sister Stéphanie. The two sisters maintained a faithful correspondence and considered each other their best friend. Clémentine’s relationship with her father improved. In 1894, she got her own coach and could come and go without her mother’s permission. By 1895, Queen Marie-Henriette moved to Spa, Belgium where she lived out the rest of her life at Hôtel du Midi, the home she had bought there. Clémentine replaced her as the first lady of the Belgian court.

Clémentine fell in love with her first cousin Prince Baudouin of Belgium. Baudouin was the elder son of Prince Philippe, Count of Flanders, brother of King Leopold II who had become heir to the Belgian throne after the death of Leopold’s only son. Therefore, Baudouin was second in the line of succession. It appears that Clémentine and Baudouin were informally betrothed. Although accounts differ as to whether or not Baudouin was in favor of this arrangement, it was generally seen as the best way of uniting the cadet and main branches of the Belgian Royal Family. However, Baudouin died of influenza in January 1891 at the age of 21.

Clémentine first met Prince Victor Bonaparte in 1888, when the prince visited Brussels. The prince had become head of the House of Bonaparte upon the death in 1879 of Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte, the only child of Napoleon III, Emperor of the French. Clémentine confided to one of her sisters that she was attracted to Victor but her father opposed the match because it could compromise the relations between the Kingdom of Belgium and the Republic of France. King Leopold’s refusal caused many arguments between father and daughter. In 1903, Clémentine once again asked permission to marry Victor and her father again refused. Clémentine persisted but was threatened with disinheritance by her father.

In 1909, after her father had died, Clémentine received permission to marry Victor from the new Belgian monarch King Albert I, her first cousin and Prince Baudouin’s younger brother. On November 14, 1910, at the Castle of Moncalieri in the Kingdom of Italy, 38-year-old Clémentine married 48-year-old Victor. Clémentine later wrote to her sister Stephanie: “My good husband, gentle, adoring, tender, loving, intelligent, connoisseur of people and things. He is beautiful, this Prince. Napoleon is a love, I adore him.”

Victor and Clementine; Photo Credit – Wikipedia

Clémentine and Victor had two children:

Clémentine and Victor initially settled in Brussels because the Republic of France did not allow pretenders to the throne to live in France. During World War I, Clémentine, Victor, and their children lived with the former Empress of the French, Eugenie, the widow of Emperor Napoleon III, at her home Farnborough Hill in Farnborough, Hampshire, England. Following the end of the war, the family returned to Brussels. Prince Victor died on May 3, 1926, in Brussels, Belgium.

Clémentine initially remained in Belgium after her husband’s death. She was greatly saddened by a major political crisis in Belgium, The Royal Question, and lived the majority of the rest of her life in France. The Royal Question (1945 to 1951) concerned whether King Leopold III could resume his royal powers and duties as King of the Belgians despite allegations that his actions during World War II were contrary to the Belgian Constitution. The crisis was eventually resolved in 1951 by the abdication of Leopold in favor of his elder son King Baudouin I.

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The last ten years of Clémentine’s life were happy and peaceful. She enjoyed her many grandchildren and received the Legion of Honor for her 80th birthday. On March 8, 1955, Clémentine died at the age of 82, at her home in Nice, France, the Villa Clairvallou. She was buried with her husband at the Imperial Chapel of Ajaccio in Ajaccio, Corsica, the birthplace of Napoleon I, Emperor of the French. The Imperial Chapel was built by Cardinal Joseph Fesch, the half-brother of Napoleon Bonaparte’s mother Letizia, so that Letizia and any other members of the Bonaparte who desired so, could be buried there.

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This article is the intellectual property of Unofficial Royalty and is NOT TO BE COPIED, EDITED, OR POSTED IN ANY FORM ON ANOTHER WEBSITE under any circumstances. It is permissible to use a link that directs to Unofficial Royalty.

Works Cited

  • De.wikipedia.org. (2017). Clementine von Belgien. [online] Available at: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clementine_von_Belgien [Accessed 14 Sep. 2017].
  • En.wikipedia.org. (2017). Princess Clémentine of Belgium. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princess_Cl%C3%A9mentine_of_Belgium [Accessed 14 Sep. 2017].
  • Fr.wikipedia.org. (2017). Clémentine de Belgique. [online] Available at: https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cl%C3%A9mentine_de_Belgique [Accessed 14 Sep. 2017].
  • Nl.wikipedia.org. (2017). Clementine van België. [online] Available at: https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clementine_van_Belgi%C3%AB [Accessed 14 Sep. 2017].

Princess Stéphanie of Belgium, Crown Princess of Austria

by Susan Flantzer  © Unofficial Royalty 2017

Princess Stéphanie of Belgium, Crown Princess of Austria; Credit – Wikipedia

The wife of the heir to the Austrian throne who died in a suicide pact with his mistress, Princess Stéphanie of Belgium was born on May 21, 1864, at the Royal Palace of Laeken in Belgium.  Stéphanie Clotilde Louise Herminie Marie Charlotte was the second of the three daughters and the third of the four children of Leopold II, King of the Belgians and Archduchess Marie-Henriette of Austria.

Stéphanie had three siblings:

The marriage of Stéphanie’s parents started out unhappy, remained unhappy, and the couple lived mostly separate lives. King Leopold had many mistresses and made no real attempt to have a successful marriage. Queen Marie-Henriette was cold and inaccessible. Stéphanie and her siblings had a difficult childhood. Their mother showed no interest in the children and their father, who was only interested in his business in the Belgian Congo, did not spend time with his daughters. In 1869, when Stéphanie’s only brother Leopold died, King Leopold blamed Queen Marie-Henriette for their son’s death. Little Leopold had fallen into a pond, caught pneumonia, and died. Hoping for a crown prince because only males could inherit the throne, Queen Marie-Henriette became pregnant again, but the long-awaited crown prince did not materialize as the child was a girl, Clémentine. Stéphanie’s parents completely separated after the birth of Clémentine.

Rudolf and Stéphanie  – official engagement photograph, 1881; Credit – Wikipedia

Stéphanie’s marriage was planned by the royal courts of Belgium and Austria. Crown Prince Rudolf of Austria, the only son of Emperor Franz Joseph I and Empress Elisabeth (Sissi), was under pressure to marry. Stéphanie who was still a teenager and Roman Catholic, met the criteria of the Emperor although the Empress did not think Stéphanie was good enough for her son because the Belgian monarchy had existed only since 1830. Nevertheless, during a trip to Belgium in March 1880 at the invitation of King Leopold II, Rudolf proposed to Stéphanie to the great joy of her parents. Stéphanie was sent to Vienna to learn the etiquette of the imperial court, but within the month, her ladies-in-waiting realized that she had not yet reached puberty. Stéphanie suffered great humiliation as the wedding was postponed and she was sent back to Belgium. Eventually, the couple married on May 10, 1881, at the Augustinerkirche, the parish church of the Imperial Court of the Habsburgs, a short walk from Hofburg Palace in Vienna, Austria. Stéphanie was not quite 17-years-old and Rudolf was 22-years-old.

Augustinerkirche in Vienna; Photo Credit – Susan Flantzer

Stéphanie and Rudolf had one child:

Stéphanie and her daughter Elisabeth Marie; Credit – Wikipedia

The marriage was happy at first, but shortly after the birth of their daughter, the relationship between Stéphanie and Rudolf began to deteriorate. Rudolf likely infected Stéphanie with a sexually transmitted disease, causing her to be infertile and unable to provide a male heir for the Austrian throne. Both Stéphanie and Rudolf began affairs with other people in the following years and intermittently spoke of divorce.

On January 30, 1889, at Mayerling, a hunting lodge in the Vienna Woods Rudolf had purchased, Rudolf shot his 17-year-old mistress Baroness Mary Vetsera, and then shot himself in an apparent suicide plot. Stéphanie was widowed at the age of 24. Rudolf wrote in his farewell letter to Stéphanie: Dear Stéphanie! You are free from my presence and plague; be happy in your way. Be good for the poor little one, who is the only thing left of me. The custody of Stéphanie’s daughter Elisabeth Marie was taken over by her grandfather, Emperor Franz Joseph. Elisabeth Marie remained close to her grandfather until he died in 1916.

Stéphanie in 1890; Photo Credit – Wikipedia

After the shock of Rudolf’s death, Stéphanie traveled and spent a great deal of time with her sisters Louise and Clémentine. She avoided Vienna as much as possible and when at court, she was unable to completely fulfill her duties. Stéphanie’s father and Emperor Franz Joseph tried in vain to marry Stéphanie to Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the Emperor’s nephew and the heir to the Austrian-Hungarian throne, to disrupt Franz Ferdinand’s relationship with Countess Sophie Chotek von Chotkow und Wognin. Because Sophie was not a member of a reigning or formerly reigning family, she could not marry a member of the Imperial Family. Franz Ferdinand refused to give Sophie up and eventually, the Emperor allowed the morganatic marriage. The assassination of Franz Ferdinand and Sophie in June 1914 was one of the causes of World War I.

Stéphanie and Count Elemér Lónyay, her second husband; Credit – www.findagrave.com

After an unhappy first marriage, Stéphanie married for love. On March 22, 1900, she married Hungarian Count Elemér Lónyay de Nagy-Lónya et Vásáros-Namény. Following the marriage, Stéphanie’s daughter Elisabeth broke off all contact with her mother. Stéphanie lost her imperial and royal titles because the marriage was unequal and incurred the wrath of her father.

When her mother Queen Marie-Henriette died in 1902, Stéphanie traveled to Brussels to attend the funeral, but when she tried to say goodbye to the coffin, her father King Leopold II had her removed from the chapel. After the death of her father King Leopold II in 1909, Stéphanie and her sister Louise tried to claim their share of the billions their father had earned in the Belgian Congo, initially his private property, but they lost their case in court. In 1934, Stéphanie disinherited her daughter, who had divorced Prince Otto zu Windisch-Graetz and was living with (and later married) a Socialist, Leopold Petznek. Stéphanie published her memoirs “I was to be an Empress” in 1937.

Stéphanie in 1911; Photo Credit – Wikipedia

Until the end of World War II, Stéphanie and her second husband lived peacefully at Oroszvar Castle now in present-day Slovakia. After the arrival of the Soviet Army in 1945, the couple left their castle to take refuge in the Benedictine Abbey of Pannonhalma in Hungary, where on August 23, 1945, Stéphanie died at the age of 81. Her husband Count Elemér Lónyay died in Budapest, Hungary on July 20, 1946. The couple was buried together at the Abbey of Pannonhalma.

Stéphanie’s tomb; Photo Credit – www.findagrave.com

This article is the intellectual property of Unofficial Royalty and is NOT TO BE COPIED, EDITED, OR POSTED IN ANY FORM ON ANOTHER WEBSITE under any circumstances. It is permissible to use a link that directs to Unofficial Royalty.

Works Cited

  • De.wikipedia.org. (2017). Stephanie von Belgien. [online] Available at: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephanie_von_Belgien [Accessed 12 Sep. 2017].
  • En.wikipedia.org. (2017). Princess Stéphanie of Belgium. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princess_St%C3%A9phanie_of_Belgium [Accessed 12 Sep. 2017].
  • Fr.wikipedia.org. (2017). Stéphanie de Belgique. [online] Available at: https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%C3%A9phanie_de_Belgique [Accessed 12 Sep. 2017].