Sophie of Pomerania, Queen of Denmark and Norway

by Susan Flantzer
© Unofficial Royalty 2021

Sophie of Pomerania, Queen of Denmark and Norway; Credit – Wikipedia

Sophie of Pomerania, Queen of Denmark and Norway was born circa 1498 in Stettin, Duchy of Pomerania, now Szczecin, Poland. Stettin was also the birthplace of Catherine II (the Great) of Russia who was born there as Princess Sophie of Anhalt-Zerbst while her father, a general in the Prussian Army, was serving as Governor of Stettin. Sophie of Pomerania was the fourth of the eight children and the second of the three daughters of Bogislaw X, Duke of Pomerania and his second wife Princess Anna Jagiellon of Poland, daughter of King Casimir IV of Poland and Archduchess Elisabeth of Austria. The first marriage of Sophie’s father to Margarete of Brandenburg was childless.

Sophie had seven siblings:

Frederik I, King of Denmark and Norway; Credit – Wikipedia

On October 9, 1518, in Kiel, Duchy of Holstein, now in the German state of Schleswig-Holstein, twenty-year-old Sophie became the second wife of forty-seven-year-old Frederik of Denmark, the youngest of the four sons but the second surviving son of Christian I, King of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden and Dorothea of Brandenburg. Frederik was co-Duke of Schleswig and Holstein with his elder brother King Hans of Denmark and Norway. Frederik’s first wife Anna of Brandenburg had died from tuberculosis in 1514 at the age of 26.

Sophie became the stepmother of Frederik and Anna’s two children:

Sophie and Frederik had six children:

Frederik’s nephew Christian II, King of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden had reigned since the death of his father King Hans in 1513. However, Christian II was deposed in Sweden in 1521 and replaced by Gustav Vasa, the first monarch of the Swedish House of Vasa. By 1523, the Danes also had enough of Christian II and a rebellion started. Christian was forced to abdicate by the Danish nobles and his paternal uncle Frederik, Duke of Schleswig and Holstein was offered the crown on January 20, 1523. Frederik’s army gained control over most of Denmark during the spring, and in April 1523, Christian II and his family left Denmark to live in exile. In 1531, Christian unsuccessfully attempted to reclaim Norway and was imprisoned by his uncle Frederik in castles, albeit in comfortable circumstances, for the last twenty-seven years of his life.

Frederik and Sophie as King and Queen of Denmark; Credit – Wikipedia

Frederik and Sophie were crowned King and Queen of Denmark on August 13, 1525, at the Cathedral of Our Lady in Copenhagen. Although Frederik was also King of Norway, he and Sophie never visited the country and were never crowned King and Queen of Norway. Frederik occasionally visited Denmark but his main residence was Gottorp Castle in the Duchy of Schleswig. After her coronation, Sophie was granted the Danish islands Lolland and Falster, Kiel Castle and Plön Castle, and several villages in the Duchy of Holstein to provide a means for her income.

After a reign of ten years, Frederik I, King of Denmark and Norway died on April 10, 1533, aged 61, at Gottrop Castle in Gottorp, Duchy of Schleswig, now in the German state of Schleswig-Holstein. Frederik was buried in Schleswig Cathedral in Schleswig, Duchy of Schleswig, now in the German state of Schleswig-Holstein.

Sophie’s stepson King Christian III; Credit – Wikipedia

After her husband’s death, when the Danish Council of State was discussing whether the Danish throne should go to her Lutheran stepson the future Christian III, or her Catholic twelve-year-old eldest son Johann, Sophie remained with her children at Gottorp Castle. In 1534, Christian was proclaimed King of Denmark at an assembly of Lutheran nobles in Jutland. However, the Danish Council of State, consisting of mostly Catholic bishops and nobles, refused to accept Christian III as king. Sophie’s son Johann was deemed too young, and the council was more amenable to restoring the deposed King Christian II to the throne because he had supported both the Catholics and Protestant Reformers at various times.

Christopher, Count of Oldenburg, the grandson of a brother of King Christian I of Denmark and the second cousin of both Christian II and Christian III, led the military alliance to restore King Christian II to the throne. A two-year civil war resulted, known as the Count’s Feud, from 1534 – 1536, between Protestant and Catholic forces, that led to King Frederik I’s son from his first marriage ascending the Danish throne as King Christian III.

Sophie had a long dispute with her stepson King Christian III and then his son and successor King Frederik II about her property. First, Christian III claimed Gottorp Castle for himself and forced Sophia to retire to Kiel Castle. Sophie considered the lands her husband had bestowed upon her as her private property. She also had conflicts with Christian III and his son and successor Frederik II over revenue management and the appointment of civil servants.

Schleswig Cathedral; Credit – Von Georg Denda, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=39310151

Sophie survived her husband King Frederik I by thirty-five years, dying at Kiel Castle on May 13, 1568, at about the age of 70. She was buried with Frederik at Schleswig Cathedral.

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Kingdom of Denmark Resources at Unofficial Royalty

Works Cited

  • En.wikipedia.org. 2020. Count’s Feud. [online] Available at: <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Count%27s_Feud> [Accessed 28 December 2020].
  • En.wikipedia.org. 2020. Sophie Of Pomerania. [online] Available at: <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophie_of_Pomerania> [Accessed 28 December 2020].
  • Flantzer, Susan. 2021. Frederik I, King of Denmark and Norway. [online] Available at: <https://www.unofficialroyalty.com/frederik-i-king-of-denmark-and-norway/> [Accessed 27 December 2020].
  • Nl.wikipedia.org. 2020. Sophia Van Pommeren (1498-1568). [online] Available at: <https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophia_van_Pommeren_(1498-1568)> [Accessed 28 December 2020].
  • Pl.wikipedia.org. 2020. Zofia Pomorska (1501–1568). [online] Available at: <https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zofia_pomorska_(1501%E2%80%931568)> [Accessed 28 December 2020].

Marie Thérèse Louise of Savoy, Princesse de Lamballe, Favorite of Queen Marie Antoinette of France

by Scott Mehl
© Unofficial Royalty 2021

Marie Thérèse Louise of Savoy, Princess of Lamballe, was a favorite and confidante of Queen Marie Antoinette of France.

Marie Thérèse Louise of Savoy, Princesse de Lamballe, source: Wikipedia

Maria Teresa Luisa of Savoy was born on September 8, 1749 at the Palazzo Carignano in Turin. She was the sixth of nine children of Luigi Vittorio of Savoy, Prince of Carignano, and Landgravine Christine of Hesse-Rheinfels-Rotenburg. Her father was an illegitimate grandson of King Vittorio Amedeo II of Sardinia, and her mother was a niece by marriage of King Carlo Emanuele III of Sardinia.  She had eight siblings:

  • Carlotta (1742) – unmarried
  • Vittorio Amedeo II, Prince of Carignano (1743) – married Joséphine of Lorraine, had issue
  • Leopoldina (1744) – married Andrea IV Doria-Pamphili-Landi, Prince of Melfi, had issue
  • Polissena (1746) – unmarried
  • Gabriella (1748) – married Ferdinand, Prince of Lobkowicz, had issue
  • Tomasso (1751) – died in childhood
  • Eugenio, Count of Villafranca (1753) – married Elisabeth Boisgarin, had issue
  • Caterina (1762) – married Don Filippo Colonna, Prince of Paliano, had issue

On January 31, 1767, Maria Teresa married Louis Alexandre of Bourbon-Penthièvre, Prince of Lamballe. Heir to one of the largest fortunes in France, Louis was the son of Louis Jean Marie of Bourbon, Duke of Penthièvre, and Princess Maria Teresa d’Este – both of whom were descendants of King Louis XIV of France and his morganatic wife, Madame de Montespan.

Despite their initial happiness, Louis soon returned to his philandering ways, taking several mistresses within just several months after their marriage. These affairs would be the end of him. Only sixteen months after marrying, the Prince of Lamballe died of a venereal disease on May 6, 1768, at the Château de Louveciennes.

Widowed at just 19, Marie Thérèse became a very wealthy woman, having inherited her husband’s entire estate. She was comforted by her father-in-law who took her in as his own daughter, and the two had a very close relationship. Later that year, Princess Marie Adélaïde, the daughter of King Louis XV, suggested Marie Thérèse as a possible second wife for her father who had recently been widowed as well. However, Marie Thérèse rebuffed the idea.

The Château de Rambouillet.  photo by Pline – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=16338695

Marie Thérèse lived a very comfortable life, splitting her time between her father-in-law’s homes, the Hôtel de Toulouse in Paris and the Château de Rambouillet outside of the city. She served as her father-in-law’s hostess when he entertained, often hosting members of the French and foreign royal families.

Due to her position, Marie Thérèse often found herself involved with functions of the French Court, including being presented to the new Dauphine, the future Queen Marie Antoinette, upon her arrival in France in 1770. Marie Antoinette was charmed by the Princess of Lamballe, and soon the two became very close. Over the next few years, Marie Thérèse was rarely separated from Marie Antoinette, having become one of her closest friends and confidantes.

As an expression of that close friendship, Queen Marie Antoinette appointed Marie Thérèse as Superintendent of the Queen’s Household in 1775. This position, previously abolished over 30 years earlier, made Marie Thérèse the highest-ranking woman in the Royal Court and gave her immense power and influence. It also came with a large salary of 50,000 crowns per year, an astronomical amount considering the poor financial state of the economy at the time. Because of her personal wealth, Marie Thérèse was asked to refuse the salary, but she insisted on receiving it, and Marie Antoinette agreed.

Marie Thérèse soon began to fall from favor with Marie Antoinette upon the arrival of Gabrielle de Polastron, Duchess de Polignac in 1775. Marie Thérèse and Gabrielle did not get along, and Marie Antoinette found herself spending more time with Gabrielle. Although losing her position as “favorite”, Marie Thérèse remained in her position in Marie Antoinette’s household.

Suffering from weak health, Marie Thérèse traveled to England for several months in 1787 to rest. Upon her return, her relationship with Marie Antoinette became closer once again. Despite everything, her loyalty to Marie Antoinette never wavered. On a trip abroad when the Bastille was stormed in 1789, Marie Thérèse rejoined the royal family in October 1789, where she remained by the Queen’s side.

When the royal family attempted to flee to Brussels in June 1791, Marie Thérèse was unaware of the plans. Marie Antoinette simply bid her goodnight and suggested she take some time off in the country. The following day, Marie Thérèse received a note from the Queen informing her of the plans and instructing her to join them in Brussels. Of course, the royal family never made it out of the country. They were captured in Varennes and brought back to Paris and confined to the Tuileries Palace.

Marie Thérèse quickly made her way to Brussels, where she found out that the escape plan had failed. She continued a correspondence with Marie Antoinette who advised her not to return to France. However, in late 1791, under new provisions of the Constitution, the Queen was instructed to reestablish her household and dismiss anyone not in service. She wrote to Marie Thérèse asking her to return or resign. Despite Marie Antoinette’s private advice to stay away, Marie Thérèse decided to return, arriving in Paris in early November 1791. She continued in her role as Superintendent of the Queen’s Household, devoting herself to Marie Antoinette and ensuring the loyalty of those surrounding her.

Despite the efforts of King  Louis XVI and his supporters, the call for an end to the monarchy grew louder and stronger. On August 10, 1792, the palace was stormed and the royal family and many of their court were taken into custody and imprisoned at the Temple, a small prison in Paris. Nine days later, Marie Thérèse was separated from them and moved to the La Force prison nearby.

A depiction of the death of the Princess of Lamballe. source: Wikipedia

On September 3, 1792, Marie Thérèse went before a tribunal that insisted she swear “hatred to the King and the Queen and to the monarchy”. After refusing to do so, Marie Thérèse was released to the streets and was quickly killed by an angry mob. Her head was placed on a pike and numerous reports claim it was paraded below the windows where Marie Antoinette was being held. Most historians agree that Marie Antoinette never saw this, but she was made aware of Marie Thérèse death. Her body was turned over to the authorities, but its whereabouts are unknown.

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Louise de Coligny, Princess of Orange, 4th wife of Willem I (the Silent), Prince of Orange

by Susan Flantzer
© Unofficial Royalty 2018

Credit – Wikipedia

On April 12, 1583, Willem I, Prince of Orange (the Silent) married his fourth wife French Huguenot Louise de Coligny, daughter of Gaspard II de Coligny and Charlotte de Laval. Born at Châtillon-sur-Loing, France on September 23, 1555, Louise was the eldest of three siblings.

Louise had two younger brothers:

Louise’s father was a French nobleman and admiral but is best remembered as a leader of the Huguenots (French Calvinist Protestants). At the age of 15, Louise married Charles de Teligny who was 20 years older. Both Charles and Louise’s father were killed during the St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre in 1572 when thousands of Huguenots were murdered. After her husband and father were killed, Louise fled to Switzerland. She returned to France in 1576 after the Edict of Beaulieu, which gave Huguenots the right of public worship, and lived on the estates of her deceased husband. Louise appeared once at the French court to reclaim the titles and property of her father.

Willem and Louise had one son:

On July 10, 1584, a little more than six months after the birth of her son, Louise was widowed for the second time when Willem I, Prince of Orange was assassinated.

Louise then raised both her son and Willem’s six daughters from his third marriage to Charlotte de Bourbon-Monpensier. She remained an advocate of Protestantism all her life. Due to her excellent connections with Protestant families and her continuing friendship with King Henri IV of France, Louise played a significant role in the political life of France and the Netherlands. She lived in Delft until one year before her death when she went to the court of Marie de’ Medici, Queen Dowager of France, at the Château de Fontainebleau. Louise, aged 65, died on November 9, 1620, at the Château de Fontainebleau and was buried with her husband Willem I, Prince of Orange in the Old Crypt of the Nieuwe Kerk in Delft.

The Old Crypt with the coffin of Willem I on the bottom, the body-like coffin of Willem I’s fourth wife Louise de Coligny on the bottom right, the coffin of Maurits on the top left and the coffin of Frederik Hendrik on the top right; Credit – Wikipedia

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Charlotte de Bourbon-Monpensier, Princess of Orange, 3rd wife of Willem I (the Silent), Prince of Orange

by Susan Flantzer
© Unofficial Royalty 2018

Charlotte de Bourbon-Monpensier, Princess of Orange; Credit – Wikipedia

On April 24, 1575, Willem I (the Silent), Prince of Orange married his third wife Charlotte de Bourbon-Monpensier. She was born in 1546/1547, the fifth of the six children of Louis, Duke of Montpensier and Jacqueline de Longwy, Countess of Bar-sur-Seine, a niece of King François I of France.

Charlotte had one brother and four sisters:

  • Françoise de Bourbon (1539–1587), married Henri Robert de La Marck, Duke of Bouillon, Prince of Sedan, had two children
  • Anne de Bourbon (1540–1572), married François de Clèves, Duke de Nevers
  • Jeanne de Bourbon (1541–1620), Abbess of Jouarre
  • François de Bourbon, Duke of Montpensier (1542–1592), married Renée d’Anjou, had one son
  • Louise de Bourbon (1548–1586), Abbess of Faremoutier

As a young child, Charlotte was sent to the Abbey of Notre-Dame de Jouarre in the care of her aunt Louise, who was the abbess there. To give his only son François the greatest possible legacy, Charlotte’s father Louis planned to send his unmarried daughters to various abbeys to avoid paying their dowries. Charlotte begged not to go to the abbey and when she took her final vows at the age of thirteen, she made a formal written protest. Upon her aunt’s death, Charlotte became the abbess against her wishes.

While in the abbey, Charlotte was instructed in Calvinism by a dissident priest. At the time of the St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre in 1572, when thousands of French Protestants were killed, Charlotte converted to Protestantism, escaped from the abbey in a cart filled with hay, and fled to the Electorate of the Palatinate (in Germany), well beyond her parents’ reach. Friedrich III, Elector Palatine took her to Heidelberg and placed her under his protection. Only a few weeks after Charlotte’s escape, she met Willem I, Prince of Orange while he was visiting Friedrich III, Elector Palatine. Two years later, he asked for her hand in marriage.

Willem and Charlotte had six daughters:

Charlotte nursing her husband Willem I after the failed assassination attempt with family and friends gathered around Willem’s bed; Credit – Wikipedia

This marriage was Willem’s happiest marriage. Charlotte supported her husband in the Dutch independence war against Spain by serving as an important link in the communication between Willem and the troops of the Dutch provinces. After an unsuccessful assassination attempt on Willem on March 18, 1582, Charlotte took great care of her wounded husband. Exhausted from caring for Willem, she fell ill with pneumonia and a high fever and died at the age of 35 on May 5, 1582. Charlotte was buried at the Cathedral of Our Lady in Antwerp (Belgium) but her tomb has not survived.

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Anna of Saxony, Princess of Orange, 2nd wife of Willem I (the Silent), Prince of Orange

by Susan Flantzer
© Unofficial Royalty 2018

Three years after the death of his first wife, Willem I (the Silent), Prince of Orange married again. On August 25, 1561, he married Anna of Saxony. However, the marriage would not end happily, and neither would Anna’s life. Anna was born on December 23, 1544, in Dresden, Duchy of Saxony, now in Saxony, Germany. She was the only surviving child and heiress of Maurice, Elector of Saxony and his wife Agnes of Hesse, the eldest daughter of Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse.

Anna had one younger brother who lived for only six months:

  • Albert of Saxony (1545 – 1546), died in infancy

Anna’s father died in 1553 in battle during Second Margrave War. In 1555, her mother remarried but died due to a miscarriage six months later. The eleven-year-old Anna was sent to live at the court of her uncle Augustus, Elector of Saxony in Dresden.

Since Anna was her father’s only heir, she was a wealthy young woman and attracted a number of royal suitors. The future King Eric XIV of Sweden made an unsuccessful marriage proposal, but it was Willem I, Prince of Orange who caught her attention. Anna’s dowry of 100,000 thalers was a very large amount of money. Willem was especially interested in the wealth and support he would acquire from Anna’s family in Saxony, Hesse-Kassel, and the Palatine. However, there was resistance to the marriage from Anna’s family. They thought she could get a husband with more status and they were concerned with the lack of Willem’s financial resources. Eventually, Willem’s persistent involvement in the marriage negotiations proved successful.

Willem and Anna had five children but only three survived to adulthood:

Within a few months of the marriage, the couple began quarreling. By 1565, it was common knowledge at all the courts in Germany and in the Netherlands that the marriage was unhappy. After the death of her first son Maurits in 1566, Anna suffered severe depression. She tried to drown her grief with alcohol. The situation between Anna and Willem was strained and they often lived apart.

In early 1571, Anna realized she was pregnant. Immediately, the paternity was controversial. Two possibilities were discussed: either Anna’s husband Willem, who had visited Anna and his children during Christmas 1570, was the father or the lawyer Jan Rubens (the future father of the painter Peter Paul Rubens), who spent a lot of time with Anna as her legal adviser, was the father. A daughter, Christine, was born in August 1571.

Willem knew that his non-recognition of the child as his daughter would be a pretext for divorce by accusing Anna of adultery. Wilhelm accused Rubens of having had an adulterous relationship with his wife and of being the biological father of Christina. Rubens was imprisoned and threatened with execution. He confessed to adultery under torture and was pardoned on the intercession of his wife. Anna also admitted the adultery, but she denied that Rubens was the father. On December 14, 1571, Anna was forced to agree to a divorce. Christine, who had been given Dietz as a surname, was not recognized by Willem as his child and he did not have to pay any further maintenance for her.

In 1572, Anna was sent to her family in Saxony where they imprisoned her as an adulteress. The windows of her room were walled up and fitted with additional iron bars. A square hole was made in the door through which food and drink were given to her. An iron gate was installed on the outside of the door prohibiting any attempt to escape. Anna died on December 18, 1577, at the Palace of the Elector of Saxony in Dresden, Electorate of Saxony, shortly before her 33rd birthday. She was buried in Meissen Cathedral in Electorate of Saxony, now in Saxony, Germany, near her ancestors in a nameless tomb.

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Anna van Egmont, Princess of Orange, 1st wife of Willem I (the Silent), Prince of Orange

by Susan Flantzer © Unofficial Royalty 2018

Anna van Egmont, Princess of Orange; Credit – Wikipedia

Anna van Egmont was the first wife of Willem I (the Silent), Prince of Orange. Born in March 1533 in Grave, Duchy of Brabant, now in the Dutch province North Brabant, she was the only child of Maximilian of Egmont, Count of Buren and Leerdam, Stadtholder of Friesland  (1509-1548) and Françoise de Lannoy (1513-1562) of the de Lannoy family, one of the oldest and most prominent families in the Netherlands. Anna’s father served as a diplomat in the imperial court of the Holy Roman Empire in Brussels where Anna bwas raised in the household of Mary of Austria who was the Governor of the Netherlands and the sister of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor. Upon her father’s death in 1548, Anna inherited his titles in her own right.

On July 8, 1551, 18-year-old Anna married another 18-year-old, Willem I, Prince of Orange. By all accounts, their marriage was a happy one. Anna and Willem lived alternately in her castle in Buren and his castle in Breda.

The couple had three children:

Statue of Anna and her husband Willem and their two surviving children in the town center of Buren; Credit – Wikipedia

Anna’s early death in Breda, Duchy of Brabant, now in the Netherlands, at the age of 25, on March 24, 1558, brought much grief to Willem. She was buried in the Grote Kerk in Breda, the traditional burial site of the House of Orange.

Grave of Anna van Egmont, Princess of Orange; Credit – Wikipedia

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David Riccio, Favorite of Mary, Queen of Scots

by Susan Flantzer
© Unofficial Royalty 2021

David Riccio; Credit – Wikipedia

Favorite: a person treated with special or undue favor by a king, queen, or another royal person

David Riccio was an Italian musician and private secretary of Mary, Queen of Scots, and was brutally murdered in the presence of the queen by a conspiracy of Protestant nobles, in part due to the jealousy of Mary’s husband Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley. His name is sometimes spelled Rizzio but Riccio is the original Italian spelling. Riccio’s name in Italian records is David Riccio di Pancalieri, David Riccio of Pancalieri. Pancalieri, a town near Turin, then in the Duchy of Savoy, now in the Piedmont section of Italy, was probably where he was born around 1533. He was a descendant of a noble family still living in Piedmont, the Riccio Counts di San Paolo e Solbrito.

Riccio was a musician at the court of Emanuele Filiberto, Duke of Savoy. He went to Scotland in 1561 with Carlo Ubertino Solaro di Moretta who was sent there as an ambassador by Emanuele Filiberto, Duke of Savoy. Once in Scotland, Riccio made friends with some musicians of Mary, Queen of Scots who told him that Mary needed a bass to complete a vocal quartet, and thus Riccio was introduced to the Scots court. He was considered a very ugly-looking man but his qualities as a musician and singer caught the queen’s attention. Riccio was a good conversationalist and Mary enjoyed discussions with him about continental Europe where she had spent her childhood in the French court.

In 1564, Mary chose Riccio to replace Augustine Raulet, her confidential secretary and decipherer, and who was the only person apart from Mary to have the keys to the box containing her personal papers. The reasons for Mary’s decision remain unclear but soon unfounded rumors were flying that Riccio was a papal spy whose real role was to support Mary in her attempt to subvert the Reformation in Scotland.

Mary, Queen of Scots and her second husband and first cousin Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley; Credit – Wikipedia

Mary had been married as a teenager to another teenager, François II, King of France. After only a 17-month reign, François, aged 16 died, and Mary returned to Scotland. She needed an heir, so a second marriage became necessary. After considering Carlos, Prince of Asturias, known as Don Carlos, eldest son and heir of King Philip II of Spain and Queen Elizabeth I’s candidate Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester, Mary became infatuated with her first cousin Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley. Both Mary and Darnley were grandchildren of Margaret Tudor, daughter of King Henry VII of England and sister of King Henry VIII of England. Mary was the daughter of James V, King of Scots, the son of Margaret Tudor and her first husband James IV, King of Scots. Darnley was the son of Lady Margaret Douglas, Margaret Tudor’s only child from her second marriage to Archibald Douglas, 6th Earl of Angus. Mary and Darnley married at Holyrood Palace in Edinburgh, Scotland on July 29, 1565.

The marriage angered Queen Elizabeth I of England who felt that Darnley, as her first cousin once removed and an English subject, needed her permission to marry. Mary’s Protestant illegitimate half-brother James Stewart, 1st Earl of Moray was also angered by his sister’s marriage to a prominent Catholic. Mary soon became disillusioned by Darnley’s uncouth behavior and his insistence upon receiving the Crown Matrimonial which would have made him co-sovereign of Scotland. Mary refused and their relationship became strained. In the autumn of 1565, Mary became pregnant. Darnley was jealous of Mary’s friendship with her private secretary David Riccio, rumored to be the father of her child, and at Darnley’s behest, some Protestant nobles formed a conspiracy to do away with Riccio.

The Protestant nobles were careful to get Darnley’s signature on the conspiracy bond so that he would be as implicated as they would be. The goals mentioned on the bond were obtaining the Crown Matrimonial for Darnley, the upholding of the Protestant religion, and the return of those exiled because of their Protestant religion. In the bond, there was no specific mention of any violence toward Riccio, except this rather open-ended statement: “So shall they not spare life or limb in setting forward all that may bend to the advancement of his [Darnley’s] honour.”

Along with Mary’s illegitimate half-brother James Stewart, 1st Earl of Moray, the nobles who were signed the conspiracy pact were:

Bedchamber of Mary, Queen of Scots; Credit – Royal Collection Trust

On the evening of March 9, 1566, Mary, who was six months pregnant, was in her tiny Supper Room at Holyrood Palace in Edinburgh, Scotland with David Riccio, Mary’s illegitimate half-sister born Lady Jean Stewart, married to Archibald Campbell, 5th Earl of Argyll (one of the conspirators), and Jean’s mother Elizabeth Bethune, married to John Stewart, 4th Lord Innermeath. Mary’s chambers consisted of four rooms: the Outer Chamber where she received visitors, her Bedchamber, a Dressing Room, and the Supper Room entered via a doorway in the Bedchamber. This writer has visited Holyrood Palace and can attest that the Supper Room is indeed tiny – twelve feet square in area. The entrance to the Supper Room can be seen in the above photo taken from the Bedchamber, through open the tapestry, the room with the chair. Directly beneath Mary’s apartments were Darnley’s apartments. The apartments were connected by a narrow privy staircase that came out in Mary’s Bedchamber close to the entrance of the Supper Room.

Supper Room, Mary, Queen of Scots Chambers; Credit – Royal Collection Trust

As supper was being served, Darnley suddenly appeared from the privy staircase. After a few minutes, Patrick Ruthven, 3rd Lord Ruthven also appeared from the privy staircase wearing a helmet and armor. Mary and her supper companions were so astounded by Ruthven with his armor that they thought he must have been ill with a fever and that in his delirium, he thought he was being attacked. However, Mary and those present were more shocked when Ruthven said, “Let it please Your Majesty that yonder man David come forth from your privy-chamber where he hath been overlong.” Mary said that Riccio was there by her royal wish and asked if Ruthven had taken leave of his senses. Ruthven then delivered a long denunciation of Mary’s supposed illicit relationship with Riccio. At the same time, Riccio, becoming more fearful, moved toward a large window in the Supper Room.

The Murder of David Rizzio by William Allan, 1833; Credit – Wikipedia

Ruthven then yelled, “Lay not hands on me, for I will not be handled” which was the signal for the other conspirators to enter the Supper Room from the privy staircase. In the confusion, the table was knocked over. Riccio was clinging to Mary’s skirts while the attackers produced pistols and knives. Riccio’s fingers were pried from Mary’s skirts and he was dragged, kicking and screaming, out of the Supper Room, through the Bedchamber, and into the Outer Chamber. Riccio screamed in French, “ Justice! Justice! Save my life, Madame, save my life!” In the Outer Chamber, Riccio was stabbed fifty-seven times and then his body was thrown down the winding main staircase and stripped of his clothes and jewels.

Ruins of Holyrood Abbey; Credit – By Kaihsu at English Wikipedia – Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons., GFDL, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2777882

Within two hours of his death, David Riccio was buried in the cemetery at Holyrood Abbey. There were reports that shortly thereafter, Mary ordered Riccio’s remains to be interred in the vault of her father James V, King of Scots at Holyrood Abbey. There were other reports that Riccio was buried in the cemetery of Canongate Kirk built in Edinburgh from 1688 – 1691. However, this is unlikely since it would have required the reburial of a Catholic in a Protestant cemetery 120 years after his death. It is more likely that David Riccio rests under an anonymous gravestone in the cemetery at Holyrood Abbey which now lies in ruins.

Immediately after the murder, Mary was able to speak to Darnley and convinced him they were both in danger and needed to escape. They stayed at Dunbar Castle, the home of  John Stewart, Commendator of Coldingham, another of Mary’s illegitimate half-siblings, and his wife Jean Hepburn, the sister of James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell, later Mary’s third husband. After a brief stay at Dunbar Castle, Mary entered Edinburgh on March 18, 1566, with 3,000 troops and moved into Edinburgh Castle to prepare for the birth of her baby. With the conspirators having fled England, Mary appeared to have won and had Darnley declared innocent of Riccio’s murder on March 21, 1566. On June 19, 1566, Mary gave birth to a son.

Like David Riccio, both Mary, Queen of Scots and Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley died violent deaths. James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell, later Mary’s third husband, entered into a conspiracy with Archibald Campbell, 5th Earl of Argyll, his brother-in-law and a Riccio murder conspirator, and George Gordon, 5th Earl of Huntly to rid Mary of her husband Darnley. On February 10, 1567, Darnley was killed when the house he was staying at in Edinburgh was blown up. After being imprisoned in English castles for nineteen years by Queen Elizabeth I, Mary was implicated in the Babington Plot, a plot to assassinate Queen Elizabeth I and put Mary on the English throne. Mary was convicted of treason, condemned to death, and beheaded on February 8, 1587. Mary and Darnley’s infant son succeeded his mother as James VI, King of Scots when she was forced to abdicate in 1567, and he then succeeded Queen Elizabeth I of England upon her death in 1603 as James I, King of England.

This article is the intellectual property of Unofficial Royalty and is NOT TO BE COPIED, EDITED, OR POSTED IN ANY FORM ON ANOTHER WEBSITE under any circumstances. It is permissible to use a link that directs to Unofficial Royalty.

Works Cited

  • En.wikipedia.org. 2021. David Rizzio. [online] Available at: <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Rizzio> [Accessed 2 January 2021].
  • Flantzer, Susan, 2017. Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley. [online] Unofficial Royalty. Available at: <https://www.unofficialroyalty.com/henry-stuart-lord-darnley/> [Accessed 2 January 2021].
  • Flantzer, Susan, 2016. Mary, Queen Of Scots. [online] Unofficial Royalty. Available at: <https://www.unofficialroyalty.com/mary-queen-of-scots/> [Accessed 2 January 2021].
  • Fraser, Antonia, 1969. Mary Queen Of Scots. New York: Bantam Dell.
  • Royal Collection Trust. 2021. Highlights Of The Palace Of Holyroodhouse. [online] Available at: <https://www.rct.uk/visit/palace-of-holyroodhouse/highlights-of-the-palace-of-holyroodhouse#/> [Accessed 2 January 2021].

Anna of Brandenburg, Duchess of Schleswig and Holstein, first wife of Frederik I, King of Denmark and Norway

by Susan Flantzer
© Unofficial Royalty 2021

Anna of Brandenburg; Credit – Wikipedia

Anna of Brandenburg was the first wife of Frederik I, King of Denmark and Norway. She died before her husband became King of Denmark and Norway but she was the mother of his heir. Anna was born on August 27, 1487, in Berlin, Margraviate of Brandenburg, now in the German state of Brandenburg. She was the fourth of the six children and the second of the three daughters of Johann II, Elector of Brandenburg and Margaret of Thuringia.

Anna had five siblings but a brother and a sister died in infancy:

In 1495, Johann II, Elector of Brandenburg started marriage negotiations with the Jagiellonian family of Poland for his elder surviving son Joachim Nestor and Anna, his elder surviving daughter, but the marriage negotiations were unsuccessful. After Johann II, Elector of Brandenburg died in 1499, his half-brother Friedrich V, Margrave of Ansbach-Bayreuth, successfully negotiated with the Danish royal family for marriages for Joachim Nestor and Anna. Joachim Nestor was to marry Elisabeth of Denmark, daughter of King Hans of Denmark and Norway and Anna was to marry King Hans’ much younger brother Frederik of Denmark, who was co-Duke of Schleswig and Holstein with his elder brother King Hans. The wedding was scheduled for Anna’s 14th birthday but the death of Anna’s mother on July 13, 1501, delayed the marriage. On April 10, 1502, in Stendal, Margraviate of Brandenburg, now in the German state of Saxony-Anhalt, fifteen-year-old Anna married thirty-one-year-old Frederik. Their marriage was a double ceremony as Anna’s brother Joachim Nestor married Elisabeth of Denmark at the same time.

The double wedding in Stendal in 1502; Credit – Wikipedia

Anna and Frederik had two children:

Anna and Frederik lived at Gottorp Castle in the Duchy of Schleswig, now in Schleswig in the German state of Schleswig-Holstein. Anna often accompanied her husband on his travels and she was very popular with the people of the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. Apparently having two children during her teenage years weakened Anna’s health. She contracted tuberculosis and died on May 3, 1514, aged 26, while six months pregnant. Anna was buried in the  Bordesholm Monastery Church (link in German) in the Duchy of Schleswig. After Anna’s death, Frederik ordered a magnificent tomb with bronze effigies of Anna and himself which still stands in Bordesholm Monastery Church. Frederik planned to be buried there but he was buried instead at Schleswig Cathedral.

Anna’s tomb at the Bordesholm Monastery Church; Credit – By Photo: Andreas Praefcke – Self-photographed, CC BY 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=37913487

Frederik hired Hans Brüggemann to carve an altar for Bordesholm Monastery Church in memory of Anna. From 1514 to 1520 Brüggemann worked on the altar, known as the Brüggemann or Bordesholm Altar. The altar has over 400 carved figures and depicts biblical stories including Adam and Eve, the Passion, the Ascension, Pentecost, and the Last Judgment. In 1666, the altar was moved to Schleswig Cathedral where it remains.

Brüggemann Altar; Credit – Von Arnoldius – Eigenes Werk, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=77065794

Frederik married again in 1518 to Sophie of Pomerania and they had six children. He became King of Denmark and Norway in 1523 and after a reign of ten years, he died on April 10, 1533, aged 61. Instead of being buried with his first wife Anna at the Bordesholm Monastery Church where a tomb was awaiting him, Frederik was buried at Schleswig Cathedral in Schleswig, Duchy of Schleswig, now in the German state of Schleswig-Holstein. Frederik’s second wife Sophie was buried with him upon her death in 1568.

This article is the intellectual property of Unofficial Royalty and is NOT TO BE COPIED, EDITED, OR POSTED IN ANY FORM ON ANOTHER WEBSITE under any circumstances. It is permissible to use a link that directs to Unofficial Royalty.

Kingdom of Denmark Resources at Unofficial Royalty

Works Cited

  • Da.wikipedia.org. 2020. Anna Af Brandenburg. [online] Available at: <https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_af_Brandenburg> [Accessed 27 December 2020].
  • De.wikipedia.org. 2020. Anna Von Brandenburg (1487–1514). [online] Available at: <https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_von_Brandenburg_(1487%E2%80%931514)> [Accessed 27 December 2020].
  • En.wikipedia.org. 2020. Anna Of Brandenburg. [online] Available at: <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_of_Brandenburg> [Accessed 27 December 2020].
  • En.wikipedia.org. 2020. John Cicero, Elector Of Brandenburg. [online] Available at: <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Cicero,_Elector_of_Brandenburg> [Accessed 27 December 2020].
  • Flantzer, Susan. 2020. Frederik I, King of Denmark and Norway. [online] Available at: <https://www.unofficialroyalty.com/frederik-i-king-of-denmark-and-norway/> [Accessed 27 December 2020].

Gabrielle de Polastron, Duchesse de Polignac, Favorite of Queen Marie Antoinette of France

by Scott Mehl
© Unofficial Royalty 2021

Gabrielle de Polastron, Duchesse de Polignac was a favorite of Queen Marie Antoinette of France. She is also the ancestress of Albert II, Sovereign Prince of Monaco.

Gabrielle de Polastron, Duchesse de Polignac – source: Wikipedia

Born in Paris on September 8, 1749, Yolande Martine Gabrielle de Polastron was the second daughter of Jean François Gabriel, Count of Polastron, Seigneur de Noueilles, Venerque and Grépiac and his first wife, Jeanne Charlotte Hérault de Vaucresson. Gabrielle (as she was known) had an elder sister Jeanne. Through her father’s second marriage to Anne-Charlotte de Noé, she also had three younger half-siblings, Denis, Adélaïde and Henriette-Nathalie.

Although her family was part of the aristocracy, they were debt-laden and lived a relatively modest lifestyle. Gabrielle was initially raised at the family’s Château de Noueilles in southern France, but following her mother’s death when Gabrielle was just three years old, her upbringing was left to an aunt who sent her to a convent to receive her education.

Gabrielle was married on July 7, 1767, to Jules François Armand de Polignac, Marquis de Mancini (later created Duke of Polignac). At the time, Polignac was serving in the French military. The couple had four children:

Queen Marie Antoinette of France. source: Wikipedia

In 1775, Gabrielle and her husband were invited to visit Versailles by her sister-in-law Diane de Polignac, a lady-in-waiting to Princess Elizabeth of France, the younger sister of King Louis XVI. Gabrielle was formally presented to Queen Marie Antoinette who instantly took a liking to her and soon asked her to move permanently to Versailles. Heavily in debt, this was not a move that Gabrielle and her husband could afford. Despite their aristocratic background, there was little money for extravagance. They lived on Jules’s military salary of just 4,000 livres and were heavily in debt. Becoming aware of this, The Queen quickly arranged to settle their debts and find a better position for Jules within the royal household.

From all accounts, Gabrielle was greatly welcomed by the French royal family, however, the feeling was not the same from many other members of the court who questioned her motives and were wary of her very quick accession to the highest level of the Queen’s entourage. Many also resented Marie Antoinette’s immense generosity shown to Gabrielle and her family. Not only were their debts resolved but they began to live a very lavish lifestyle, primarily funded by Marie Antoinette. Further adding to the resentment came in 1780 when Gabrielle’s husband was created Duke of Polignac, making Gabrielle a Duchess.

In 1782, Gabrielle was appointed Governess to Ling Louis XVI’s children, which further alienated other members of the Court who felt Gabrielle was not of a sufficient social status for such a prominent position. She took up new apartments within the Palace of Versailles, significantly larger than any of her predecessors, and was given a small cottage at the Hameau de la Reine – the Queen’s private retreat on the grounds of the Petit Trianon.

Joseph Hyacinthe François de Paule de Rigaud, Count of Vaudreuil. source: Wikipedia

Gabrielle briefly fell out of favor with Marie Antoinette in 1785, primarily due to her friendship with Joseph Hyacinthe de Rigaud, Count of Vaudreuil whom the Queen did not trust. Rumors spread that Gabrielle and the Count were having an affair, and that he was the father of her youngest son, but this is disrupted by most historians. Sensing the Queen’s displeasure, Gabrielle left Versailles for an extended vacation in England. The two soon mended their relationship and became close again in the months leading up to the French Revolution. However, the world would quickly change for everyone at Court, following the storming of the Bastille in July 1789. Gabrielle and her family fled France, traveling throughout Europe before eventually settling in Vienna. During this time, she remained in close contact with Marie Antoinette for the next several years.

Having developed what is believed to be cancer, her health quickly began to decline. Just two months after Marie Antoinette’s execution, Gabrielle died in Vienna on December 3, 1793, at the age of 44.

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This article is the intellectual property of Unofficial Royalty and is NOT TO BE COPIED, EDITED, OR POSTED IN ANY FORM ON ANOTHER WEBSITE under any circumstances. It is permissible to use a link that directs to Unofficial Royalty.

George Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham, Favorite of King Charles II of England

by Susan Flantzer
© Unofficial Royalty 2021

George Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham; Credit – Wikipedia

Favorite: a person treated with special or undue favor by a king, queen, or another royal person

A member of the Villiers family, a prominent aristocratic family during the Stuart dynasty, George Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham was born on January 30, 1628, during the reign of King Charles I of England. He was the third of the four children and the second but the eldest surviving of the three sons of George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham and Katherine Manners. George was a half-first cousin once removed of King Charles II’s mistress Barbara Palmer, 1st Duchess of Cleveland who was born as Barbara Villiers. Barbara’s father William Villiers, 2nd Viscount Grandison was the son of Sir Edward Villiers, a half-brother of George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham.

George (on his mother’s lap) with his parents and his sister Mary; Credit – Wikipedia

George had three siblings:

  • Mary Villiers (1622 – 1685), married (1) Charles Herbert, Lord Herbert, no children (2) James Stewart, 1st Duke of Richmond, 4th Duke of Lennox, had two children (3) Colonel Thomas Howard, no children
  • Charles Villiers, Earl of Coventry (1625 – 1627), died in childhood
  • Lord Francis Villiers (1629 – 1648), unmarried, died in a skirmish at Kingston-Upon-Thames during the Second English Civil War

The elder George Villiers, the 1st Duke of Buckingham, was a courtier and favorite of King James I of England and his son King Charles I until a disgruntled army officer assassinated him on August 23, 1628. His seven-month-old son George inherited his father’s wealth and his long string of titles: Duke of Buckingham, Marquess of Buckingham, Earl of Buckingham, Earl of Coventry, Viscount Villiers, and Baron Whaddon. George’s mother Katherine succeeded to one of her father’s titles Baron de Ros of Helmsley upon his death in 1632, becoming the 18th Baroness de Ros of Helmsley in her own right. She married for a second time to Randal MacDonnell, 1st Marquess of Antrim in 1635, and went to live at Dunluce Castle in County Antrim, Ireland. Katherine survived her first husband by twenty-one years, dying in 1649 in Waterford, Ireland, probably of the plague. Upon his mother’s death, George inherited her title Baron de Ros of Helmsley.

George Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham and Lord Francis Villiers; Credit – Wikipedia

George Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham and his brother Lord Francis Villiers were brought up in the household of King Charles I with Charles I’s sons, the future King Charles II and the future King James II. King Charles I took responsibility for George and Francis because of his loyalty to their assassinated father and because he did not think their Catholic mother should raise them. The education of the two Villiers boys and the two royal princes was overseen by William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Newcastle and Brian Duppa, Bishop of Winchester, and then later by John Earle, Bishop of Salisbury. The philosopher Thomas Hobbes was their mathematics teacher.

George and his brother Francis actively supported and fought with the Royalists during the English Civil War. After the death of his brother in a battle near Kingston upon Thames, George Villiers fled England and took refuge like many other royalists in the Netherlands. The execution of King Charles I on January 30, 1649, made his son Charles the de jure King of England. Because he participated in the Royalist cause, George’s property in England was confiscated but King Charles II in exile made him a Knight of the Garter in 1649 and a member of the Privy Council in 1650.

King Charles II in exile, 1653; Credit – Wikipedia

In 1650, accompanied by George, Charles landed in Scotland and raised an army of 10,000 men. After being crowned King of Scots at Scone on January 1, 1651, Charles marched his army into England but suffered an overwhelming defeat at the Battle of Worcester.  After being a fugitive for six weeks, Charles escaped England and fled to France. Oliver Cromwell was declared Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland. England remained a Commonwealth and then a Protectorate until 1660.

George followed the English royal family into exile. He returned to England in 1657 and married Mary Fairfax, the only child and heir of Thomas Fairfax, 3rd Lord Fairfax of Cameron. When George’s property had been confiscated by the Cromwell government, it was given to Mary’s father Thomas Fairfax. George hoped that the marriage would result in him getting back his property. George and Mary’s marriage was childless. Mary was a Lady of the Bedchamber to Charles II’s wife Catherine of Braganza from 1663 – 1688.

In 1658, George was suspected of organizing a plot against Cromwell’s government. He was placed under house arrest at York House, his home in London, but escaped and when he was captured, he was imprisoned in the Tower of London until his father-in-law negotiated his release in 1659. The conditions of George’s release were a promise not to assist the enemies of the government and a very large security payment from his father-in-law Thomas Fairfax.

On September 3, 1658, Oliver Cromwell died. His son Richard Cromwell ruled only until April 1659 and there was a real possibility for the restoration of the monarchy. On May 1, 1660, Parliament formally invited Charles, as King Charles II, to be the English monarch in what has become known as the Restoration. On May 23, 1660, Charles landed at Dover, England and on his 30th birthday, May 29, 1660, King Charles II entered London in a procession with George Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham accompanying the king.

After the restoration of King Charles II, George held several positions including Lord Lieutenant of the West Riding of Yorkshire, Minister of State, and Master of the Horse. His endeavor to influence English politics was stymied by the Lord Chancellor Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon and in 1667, George took an active part in the overthrow of Hyde. He then played an important role in the group of five royal advisors that called itself the CABAL, formed from the letters of its members’ names:

C (Sir Thomas Clifford)
A (Anthony Ashley-Cooper, Baron Ashley)
B (George Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham)
A (Henry Bennet, 1st Earl of Arlington)
L (John Maitland, 2nd Earl of Lauderdale)

George’s mistress Anna Maria Talbot, Countess of Shrewsbury; Credit – Wikipedia

George was one of the Restoration rakes which included John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester, Sir Charles Sedley, and Charles Sackville, 6th Earl of Dorset. Following the example of King Charles II, they distinguished themselves in drinking, sex, and witty conversation. In 1667, George began an affair with Anna Maria Talbot, Countess of Shrewsbury, the wife of Francis Talbot, 11th Earl of Shrewsbury. The Earl challenged George to a duel and was mortally wounded by George, dying two months later of his injury. After the death of the 11th Earl of Shrewsbury, his widow Anna Maria went to live with George which necessitated George’s wife Mary living in the home of her birth family until the affair ended in 1674.

The Life of Buckingham by Augustus Leopold Egg – George is the central figure with King Charles II standing behind him; Credit – Wikipedia

In 1674, the House of Commons and the House of Lords brought charges against George. He was accused of embezzling public funds, having secret negotiations with France, and condemned for his affair with Anna Maria Talbot, Countess of Shrewsbury. Due to a petition from the House of Commons, George was removed from office by Charles II and resigned from the royal advisory group. However, as a peer, he was still a member of the House of Lords and participated in the business of the House of Lords. Personally, George reformed his ways, reconciled with his wife Mary, and began to pay his debts.

After the death of King Charles II in 1685, George retired to his estate in Helmsley, North Yorkshire, England. He died there on April 16, 1687, aged 59, from complications of a cold he caught while participating in a fox hunt. Originally buried in Yorkshire, on June 7, 1687, George’s remains were moved to the Buckingham Vault in the Chapel of St. Nicholas in Westminster Abbey in London, England. While his father has a lavish tomb with an effigy in the Chapel of St. Nicholas, George has no monument or marker. Because George had no legitimate male heir, his titles became extinct except for Baron de Ros of Helmsley from his mother’s family which fell into abeyance until 1790. George’s wife Mary survived him by seventeen years, dying on October 30, 1704, aged 67. She was buried with her husband in the Buckingham Vault in Westminster Abbey.

Embed from Getty Images 
The Chapel of St. Nicholas at Westminster Abbey where George and his wife Mary are buried in the Buckingham Vault

This article is the intellectual property of Unofficial Royalty and is NOT TO BE COPIED, EDITED, OR POSTED IN ANY FORM ON ANOTHER WEBSITE under any circumstances. It is permissible to use a link that directs to Unofficial Royalty.

Works Cited

  • En.wikipedia.org. 2020. George Villiers, 2Nd Duke Of Buckingham. [online] Available at: <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Villiers,_2nd_Duke_of_Buckingham> [Accessed 31 December 2020].
  • Flantzer, Susan. 2016. King Charles II Of England. [online] Unofficial Royalty. Available at: <https://www.unofficialroyalty.com/king-charles-ii-of-england/> [Accessed 31 December 2020].
  • Flantzer, Susan. 2020. George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, Favorite of King James I of England and King Charles I of England. Available at: <https://www.unofficialroyalty.com/george-villiers-1st-duke-of-buckingham-favorite-of-king-james-i-of-england-and-king-charles-i-of-england/> [Accessed 31 December 2020].
  • Fr.wikipedia.org. 2020. George Villiers (2E Duc De Buckingham). [online] Available at: <https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Villiers_(2e_duc_de_Buckingham)> [Accessed 31 December 2020].
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  • Westminster Abbey. 2020. Villiers Family | Westminster Abbey. [online] Available at: <https://www.westminster-abbey.org/abbey-commemorations/commemorations/villiers-family> [Accessed 31 December 2020].